# LSAT Study Guide
## 180+ High-Yield Concepts for the Law School Admission Test

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> **📋 How to Use This Guide:** The LSAT tests reasoning, not knowledge — but mastering the *concepts* behind every question type, flaw pattern, and game structure is how you raise your score. Each section: concept tables (definition + LSAT significance + test-day tip), followed by LSAT-style exercises. Answer keys with full explanations at the back. Bonus materials are designed for last-week drilling.

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## ⚖️ Section 1: Logical Reasoning (30 Terms)

| # | Term | Definition | LSAT Significance | Test-Day Tip |
|---|------|------------|-------------------|--------------|
| 1 | **Argument** | A set of statements where one (the conclusion) is claimed to follow from others (the premises) | Every LR stimulus is an argument. Find the conclusion FIRST — everything else is support for it. | Look for conclusion indicators: thus, therefore, so, hence, as a result, it follows that. |
| 2 | **Premise** | A statement offered as support for the conclusion | Premises are the 'why' behind the argument. Identify them after the conclusion. | Premise indicators: because, since, for, given that, as, inasmuch as, due to. |
| 3 | **Conclusion** | The main point the arguer is trying to prove | Find this FIRST. Most LR questions hinge on the relationship between premises and conclusion. | Conclusion indicators: thus, therefore, so, hence, it follows that, as a result, consequently. |
| 4 | **Assumption** | An unstated premise necessary for the conclusion to follow from the premises | The 'missing link' between premises and conclusion. Necessary assumptions are required. Sufficient assumptions guarantee | The Negation Test: negate the answer choice. If negating it destroys the argument, it's a necessary assumption. |
| 5 | **Necessary Assumption** | A statement that MUST be true for the argument to hold — without it, the argument fails | Also called 'required assumption.' The argument depends on it. | Negation Test is your best tool. If negating the answer doesn't destroy the argument, it's not necessary. |
| 6 | **Sufficient Assumption** | A statement that, if true, guarantees the conclusion follows — it 'fills the gap' completely | Stronger than necessary assumptions. Makes the argument logically airtight. | Look for an answer that bridges ALL the premises to the conclusion. Often uses language like 'if...then' or 'all.' |
| 7 | **Strengthen** | Make the argument more likely to be true — supports the conclusion | Doesn't need to prove the conclusion, just make it more probable. | Eliminate answers that weaken or are irrelevant. The correct answer adds support. Watch for partial strengthens — they s |
| 8 | **Weaken** | Make the argument less likely to be true — undermines the conclusion | Attacks the link between premises and conclusion. Look for alternative causes, counterexamples, or data that contradicts | The most common weakeners: alternate cause, reversed causation, sampling issues, or showing a premise is false. |
| 9 | **Flaw** | A logical error in reasoning that makes the argument invalid or weak | The #1 tested concept on LR. Every argument has a potential flaw. | Learn the common flaw types cold. Most flaw questions just ask you to name/describe the flaw in the stimulus. |
| 10 | **Parallel Reasoning** | Identify the answer choice that uses the same logical structure as the stimulus | Match the STRUCTURE, not the topic. Abstract the argument to its logical form. | Matching flawed reasoning is most common. Identify the flaw in the stimulus, then find the same flaw in an answer. |
| 11 | **Main Point / Main Conclusion** | Identify the primary conclusion the author is arguing for | The 'thesis' of the argument. Not a premise or intermediate conclusion. | Ask: what is the author trying to convince me of? Everything else in the stimulus serves that point. |
| 12 | **Role of a Statement** | Identify the function a specific sentence plays in the argument | Is it a premise? Conclusion? Background? Concession? Counterargument? | Read the statement in context. What job does it do for the overall argument? Abstract first, then match. |
| 13 | **Point at Issue / Point of Agreement** | Two speakers disagree or agree on a specific proposition | Must be something BOTH speakers address. Not tangential. | Identify what each speaker's position is, then find the statement where they explicitly diverge or converge. |
| 14 | **Method of Reasoning** | Describe HOW the author makes their argument | Common methods: analogy, counterexample, elimination of alternatives, appeal to authority, generalization. | Abstract the argument's strategy. The answer describes the technique, not the content. |
| 15 | **Paradox / Resolve** | Two seemingly contradictory facts must both be true — explain how | Find the answer that explains BOTH facts simultaneously. | Wrong answers often explain one fact but conflict with the other. The correct answer reconciles both. |
| 16 | **Principle** | A general rule or proposition that supports a specific conclusion | Can go 'downward' (principle → specific case) or 'upward' (specific case → principle). | Match the scope of the principle to the scenario. Overly broad or narrow principles are wrong. |
| 17 | **Evaluate the Argument** | Which question/answer would be most useful in assessing the validity of the argument? | The 'what would you want to know?' question. | Look for a missing piece of information that could swing the argument either way (strengthen OR weaken depending on answ |
| 18 | **Conditional Reasoning** | 'If P, then Q' logic — a sufficient condition guarantees a necessary condition | One of the most tested formal logic patterns. P → Q. | Know the contrapositive: NOT Q → NOT P. Do NOT confuse with converse (Q → P) or inverse (NOT P → NOT Q). |
| 19 | **Contrapositive** | The logically equivalent reversal of a conditional: If P→Q, then NOT Q→NOT P | The ONLY valid inference from a single conditional (besides repeating it). | If 'all cats are mammals,' contrapositive: 'if it's not a mammal, it's not a cat.' Always valid. |
| 20 | **Sufficient Condition** | A condition that, when met, GUARANTEES the outcome | In 'If P, then Q,' P is the sufficient condition. | Sufficient = 'enough to trigger.' If you see P, you know Q follows. But Q could happen without P. |
| 21 | **Necessary Condition** | A condition that MUST be present for the outcome to occur | In 'If P, then Q,' Q is the necessary condition. | Necessary = 'required for.' If Q is absent, P cannot occur. But Q alone doesn't guarantee P. |
| 22 | **Causation vs Correlation** | Causation: X causes Y. Correlation: X and Y occur together. | LSAT tests this constantly. Just because two things correlate doesn't mean one causes the other. | Alternative explanations: reversed causation (Y causes X), third factor (Z causes both), coincidence. |
| 23 | **Representativeness** | How well a sample reflects the population it claims to represent | Critical for statistical/survey arguments. An unrepresentative sample makes a generalization invalid. | Check: sample size, selection method, exclusion criteria. A small or self-selected sample may not generalize. |
| 24 | **Overgeneralization** | Drawing a conclusion about a whole group based on an insufficient or unrepresentative sample | Common flaw. 'Some' does not imply 'most' — 'most' does not imply 'all.' | Quantifier precision matters: some, many, most, all, none. Each has a specific logical meaning on the LSAT. |
| 25 | **Ad Hominem** | Attacking the person making the argument rather than the argument itself | Classic flaw. Character, motives, or circumstances of the arguer are irrelevant to truth of their claim. | Distinguish: ad hominem (personal) vs legitimate credibility challenge (expertise directly relevant). |
| 26 | **Appeal to Authority** | Citing an authority figure as evidence when the authority is not qualified in the relevant field | A doctor's opinion on economics ≠ medical authority. The authority must have relevant expertise. | Check: is this person actually an expert in this specific subject? Are there other experts who disagree? |
| 27 | **False Dichotomy** | Presenting only two options when more exist | 'Either we cut funding or taxes increase' — maybe there's a third option. | Also called 'false dilemma' or 'either/or fallacy.' Look for the excluded middle ground in the answer. |
| 28 | **Circular Reasoning** | The conclusion restates a premise — assuming what needs to be proved | 'This law is just because it is fair.' Just and fair mean the same thing here — no actual support. | The premise and conclusion are essentially identical. The argument goes in a circle. |
| 29 | **Equivocation** | Using a term in two different ways in the same argument | 'A bank is a safe place. A river has banks. Therefore rivers are safe.' Bank = financial institution vs riverbank. | LSAT loves wordplay equivocations. Ask: is this term being used consistently throughout? |
| 30 | **Percent vs Amount** | Percentage and absolute number are different — a percentage change doesn't equal a number change | 'Crime increased 50%' could mean 1→1.5 crimes. 'Crime increased by 1,000' could be a 0.1% increase. | Always check: percent of WHAT? A smaller percentage of a huge number can be bigger than a large percentage of a small nu |

### ✏️ Exercise A: Fill in the Blank
1. **Argument**: A set of statements where one (the conclusion) __________ claimed to follow from others (the premises)
2. **Premise**: A statement offered as __________ for the conclusion
3. **Conclusion**: The main point the __________ is trying to prove
4. **Assumption**: An unstated premise necessary for the __________ to follow from the premises
5. **Necessary Assumption**: A statement that MUST be true for the __________ to hold — without it, the argument fails
6. **Sufficient Assumption**: A statement that, if true, guarantees the __________ follows — it 'fills the gap' completely
7. **Strengthen**: Make the argument more likely to __________ true — supports the conclusion
8. **Weaken**: Make the argument less likely to __________ true — undermines the conclusion
9. **Flaw**: A logical error in reasoning that __________ the argument invalid or weak
10. **Parallel Reasoning**: Identify the answer choice that uses __________ same logical structure as the stimulus

### 🔗 Exercise B: Matching
| Term | Letter |
|------|--------|
| **Argument** | ___ |
| **Premise** | ___ |
| **Conclusion** | ___ |
| **Assumption** | ___ |
| **Necessary Assumption** | ___ |
| **Sufficient Assumption** | ___ |
| **Strengthen** | ___ |
| **Weaken** | ___ |
| **Flaw** | ___ |
| **Parallel Reasoning** | ___ |

| Letter | Definition |
|--------|------------|
| A | Make the argument less likely to be true — undermines the conclusion |
| B | An unstated premise necessary for the conclusion to follow from the premises |
| C | The main point the arguer is trying to prove |
| D | A logical error in reasoning that makes the argument invalid or weak |
| E | A statement that, if true, guarantees the conclusion follows — it 'fills the gap' completely |
| F | Make the argument more likely to be true — supports the conclusion |
| G | Identify the answer choice that uses the same logical structure as the stimulus |
| H | A statement that MUST be true for the argument to hold — without it, the argument fails |
| I | A set of statements where one (the conclusion) is claimed to follow from others (the premises) |
| J | A statement offered as support for the conclusion |

### 📝 Exercise C: LSAT-Style Questions
**1.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Argument**?
   A) A set of statements where one (the conclusion) is claimed to follow from others (the premises)
   B) A condition that, when met, GUARANTEES the outcome
   C) Find the answer that explains BOTH facts simultaneously.
   D) The main point the arguer is trying to prove

**2.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Premise**?
   A) A statement offered as support for the conclusion
   B) A set of statements where one (the conclusion) is claimed to follow from others (the premises)
   C) The 'missing link' between premises and conclusion. Necessary assumptions are required. Sufficient a
   D) Make the argument less likely to be true — undermines the conclusion

**3.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Conclusion**?
   A) The main point the arguer is trying to prove
   B) A logical error in reasoning that makes the argument invalid or weak
   C) One of the most tested formal logic patterns. P → Q.
   D) A condition that MUST be present for the outcome to occur

**4.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Assumption**?
   A) An unstated premise necessary for the conclusion to follow from the premises
   B) A set of statements where one (the conclusion) is claimed to follow from others (the premises)
   C) The ONLY valid inference from a single conditional (besides repeating it).
   D) Make the argument less likely to be true — undermines the conclusion

**5.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Necessary Assumption**?
   A) A statement that MUST be true for the argument to hold — without it, the argument fails
   B) Drawing a conclusion about a whole group based on an insufficient or unrepresentative sample
   C) LSAT tests this constantly. Just because two things correlate doesn't mean one causes the other.
   D) Drawing a conclusion about a whole group based on an insufficient or unrepresentative sample

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## ⚖️ Section 2: Logic Games / Analytical Reasoning (24 Terms)

| # | Term | Definition | LSAT Significance | Test-Day Tip |
|---|------|------------|-------------------|--------------|
| 1 | **Sequencing Game** | Order elements along a linear dimension — time, rank, position, days | Most common game type. Set up slots (1st→Last) and apply ordering rules. | Use a number line: 1 ___ 2 ___ 3 ___ 4 ___ 5 ___. Place known elements first, then constrain. |
| 2 | **Grouping Game** | Sort elements into categories or teams — in/out, selection, assignment | Second most common. Determine who is selected or which group they belong to. | Use in/out diagrams or labeled groups. Conditional rules heavily featured: 'If A is in, B is out.' |
| 3 | **Hybrid Game** | Combines sequencing + grouping — sort AND order simultaneously | Increasingly common on modern LSAT. Elements must be both placed in groups and ordered within them. | Diagram BOTH dimensions. Stack your diagram: groups on top, ordering within groups below. |
| 4 | **Diagramming** | Visual representation of a game's rules and constraints | The single most important LG skill. A clear diagram saves 2-3 minutes per game. | Develop your own consistent notation. Key symbols: → (if/then), ~ (not), < (before), > (after). |
| 5 | **Deduction / Inference** | A conclusion that MUST be true based on the given rules | Find what's forced before looking at answer choices. Combine rules to create chain deductions. | Deductions are where you score points. Don't just list rules — figure out what they IMPLY together. |
| 6 | **Rule** | A constraint that limits the possible arrangements | Read rules precisely. One word changes everything. 'A is before B' vs 'A is immediately before B' are VERY different. | Underline: exactly, immediately, not necessarily, at least, at most, adjacent, consecutive. |
| 7 | **Contrapositive (in Games)** | Turn 'If A, then B' into 'If not B, then not A' | Crucial for games with conditional rules. If A→B, and you're told not-B, you know not-A. | This deduction alone solves 2-3 questions per game. Always write the contrapositive next to the original rule. |
| 8 | **Not-Both Rule** | A and B cannot both be selected/together | 'A → ~B' and 'B → ~A.' At most one of them appears. | Not-both is the same as 'cannot be together.' Don't confuse with 'either/or' (at least one). |
| 9 | **Either/Or Rule** | At least one of A or B must be selected/included | '~A → B' and '~B → A.' If one is missing, the other must be present. | Either/or on the LSAT means 'at least one, possibly both' unless 'but not both' is specified. |
| 10 | **Blocks** | Two or more elements that must appear together or in a specific relationship | Fixed block: AB must be adjacent and in that order. Loose block: A must be before B (not necessarily adjacent). | Blocks take up multiple slots simultaneously — they're the most constraining pattern in sequencing games. |
| 11 | **Distribution** | How many elements go to each group (the numerical breakdown) | Often the key deduction. If 7 elements into 3 groups, know the distribution possibilities. | List all possible distributions: 3-2-2, 3-3-1, 4-2-1, etc. The distribution often unlocks the entire game. |
| 12 | **Float/Variable** | An element not constrained by any rule — can go anywhere | Floats are flexible but vulnerable. They often fill the last remaining slot. | Identify them early — they're rarely the answer to a 'must be true' but often for 'could be true.' |
| 13 | **Templates/Scenarios** | Pre-building possible arrangements based on a rule that forks the game | If a rule says 'P is either first or last,' build two templates: one with P=1st, one with P=last. | Templates are powerful but risky. Only use when a single rule splits the game into 2-3 clear scenarios. |
| 14 | **If-Clause Question** | 'If X is in position 3, which must be true?' | Use the local condition to trigger deductions. Create a mini-diagram for just that question. | Draw a new mini diagram next to the question. Don't erase your master diagram — you'll need it for other questions. |
| 15 | **Could Be True** | Which arrangement is possible given the rules? | Test each answer: can you make it work? If yes, it's correct (for CBT). If NO possible arrangement works, it's correct ( | For CBT, wrong answers are impossible. Test each by trying to construct a valid scenario. |
| 16 | **Must Be True / Must Be False** | MBT: true in every possible arrangement. MBF: false in every possible arrangement. | Deduction questions. Wrong answers for MBT are 'might be true' or 'must be false.' | Test by checking: is there ANY valid arrangement where this is false? If yes, it's not MBT. |
| 17 | **Fully Determined** | If a question asks which piece of information would fully determine the arrangement | Find the answer that, when added, forces every element into exactly one position. | Often the answer is a constraint on the most ambiguous element or the element with the most connections. |
| 18 | **Redundancy** | A rule that is already implied by other rules — doesn't add new constraint | Recognize redundant rules to avoid diagramming clutter. | Two rules might seem different but actually say the same thing. Example: 'A is before C' + 'B is after C' + 'B is before |
| 19 | **'Not Necessarily'** | This does NOT mean 'is never.' It means 'could sometimes not be.' | Common LSAT wording trap. 'A is not necessarily before B' means A COULD be after B, not that A MUST be after B. | Read 'not necessarily' as 'it's possible that... not.' The opposite of 'must be true' is 'not necessarily true.' |
| 20 | **Substitution Question** | 'Which rule, if substituted for Rule X, would have the same effect?' | Find an answer that imposes exactly the same constraints as the original rule — no more, no less. | Test: with the new rule, can you make every arrangement you could before? Are any new arrangements ruled out? |
| 21 | **Slot** | A position in a sequencing game | Numbered positions: 1st is earliest/first/highest. Use blanks: ___ ___ ___ ___. | Slots represent the variable you're ordering in. Label them clearly. Put a question mark when unsure. |
| 22 | **Pivot/Anchor** | An element that, once placed, determines the positions of many other elements | Find the 'linchpin' of the game. The most-connected element that drives deductions. | Use the element with the most rules attached as your starting point for deductions. |
| 23 | **Game Types Summary** | Sequencing (order), Grouping (sort), Assignment (match), Hybrid (mix), Pattern (repeating) | Know each type's standard diagram approach before test day. | Modern LSAT often blends types. Be flexible — adapt your diagram to the game, not vice versa. |
| 24 | **Least Restrictive vs Most Restrictive** | Least restrictive: could be true (open). Most restrictive: must be true (forced). | Use restrictiveness to prioritize. Start with the most restrictive elements when making your diagram. | A rule that says 'X must be first' is much more restrictive than 'X is not last.' |

### ✏️ Exercise A: Fill in the Blank
1. **Sequencing Game**: Order elements along a linear __________ — time, rank, position, days
2. **Grouping Game**: Sort elements into categories or __________ — in/out, selection, assignment
3. **Hybrid Game**: Combines sequencing + grouping __________ sort AND order simultaneously
4. **Diagramming**: Visual representation of a __________ rules and constraints
5. **Deduction / Inference**: A conclusion that MUST be __________ based on the given rules
6. **Rule**: A constraint that __________ the possible arrangements
7. **Contrapositive (in Games)**: Turn 'If A, then B' into __________ not B, then not A'
8. **Not-Both Rule**: A and B __________ both be selected/together
9. **Either/Or Rule**: At least one of A __________ B must be selected/included
10. **Blocks**: Two or more elements that must __________ together or in a specific relationship

### 🔗 Exercise B: Matching
| Term | Letter |
|------|--------|
| **Sequencing Game** | ___ |
| **Grouping Game** | ___ |
| **Hybrid Game** | ___ |
| **Diagramming** | ___ |
| **Deduction / Inference** | ___ |
| **Rule** | ___ |
| **Contrapositive (in Games)** | ___ |
| **Not-Both Rule** | ___ |
| **Either/Or Rule** | ___ |
| **Blocks** | ___ |

| Letter | Definition |
|--------|------------|
| A | A constraint that limits the possible arrangements |
| B | Sort elements into categories or teams — in/out, selection, assignment |
| C | Two or more elements that must appear together or in a specific relationship |
| D | Order elements along a linear dimension — time, rank, position, days |
| E | Combines sequencing + grouping — sort AND order simultaneously |
| F | A conclusion that MUST be true based on the given rules |
| G | A and B cannot both be selected/together |
| H | Visual representation of a game's rules and constraints |
| I | Turn 'If A, then B' into 'If not B, then not A' |
| J | At least one of A or B must be selected/included |

### 📝 Exercise C: LSAT-Style Questions
**1.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Sequencing Game**?
   A) Order elements along a linear dimension — time, rank, position, days
   B) An element not constrained by any rule — can go anywhere
   C) Fixed block: AB must be adjacent and in that order. Loose block: A must be before B (not necessarily
   D) A constraint that limits the possible arrangements

**2.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Grouping Game**?
   A) Sort elements into categories or teams — in/out, selection, assignment
   B) A and B cannot both be selected/together
   C) Floats are flexible but vulnerable. They often fill the last remaining slot.
   D) A conclusion that MUST be true based on the given rules

**3.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Hybrid Game**?
   A) Combines sequencing + grouping — sort AND order simultaneously
   B) Visual representation of a game's rules and constraints
   C) Use the local condition to trigger deductions. Create a mini-diagram for just that question.
   D) A conclusion that MUST be true based on the given rules

**4.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Diagramming**?
   A) Visual representation of a game's rules and constraints
   B) Pre-building possible arrangements based on a rule that forks the game
   C) If a rule says 'P is either first or last,' build two templates: one with P=1st, one with P=last.
   D) A position in a sequencing game

**5.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Deduction / Inference**?
   A) A conclusion that MUST be true based on the given rules
   B) Two or more elements that must appear together or in a specific relationship
   C) Second most common. Determine who is selected or which group they belong to.
   D) MBT: true in every possible arrangement. MBF: false in every possible arrangement.

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## ⚖️ Section 3: Reading Comprehension (22 Terms)

| # | Term | Definition | LSAT Significance | Test-Day Tip |
|---|------|------------|-------------------|--------------|
| 1 | **Passage Mapping** | Creating a structural outline of the passage — not just reading it | The #1 RC skill. Map: each paragraph's function, author's main argument, and relationships between ideas. | Your map should fit on a few lines. Note: P1 (background), P2 (criticism), P3 (author's view), P4 (implications). |
| 2 | **Main Point / Primary Purpose** | The central thesis of the passage — what the author most wants you to believe | Always a global question. Answer should capture the overall scope and purpose. | Eliminate answers that are too narrow (one paragraph), too broad (beyond the passage), or capture only background. |
| 3 | **Author's Attitude / Tone** | The author's stance toward the subject — critical, supportive, neutral, skeptical, admiring | Look at word choice: 'unfortunately,' 'remarkably,' 'allegedly' are tone cues. | The correct answer is usually moderate. Extreme attitudes ('outraged,' 'ecstatic') are almost never right. |
| 4 | **Inference (RC)** | A conclusion not explicitly stated but logically following from the passage | Most RC questions are inference-based. Find the textual support — don't bring outside knowledge. | The inference must be supported by the passage. Eliminate answers that require assumptions beyond what's written. |
| 5 | **Detail / Retrieval** | Finding specific information explicitly stated in the passage | 'According to the passage...' Find the exact line and read above/below for context. | Don't rely on memory — go back to the passage. The LSAT tests precision, not recollection. |
| 6 | **Function / Purpose of a Paragraph** | What role does this paragraph play in the overall argument? | Is it: introducing a problem, presenting an opposing view, providing evidence, refuting a claim? | Read the paragraph in context. The first sentence often signals function. Ask: why did the author include this? |
| 7 | **Comparative Reading** | Two passages on the same topic — compare their approaches, agreement, and disagreement | Passage A vs Passage B. What do they agree on? Where do they diverge? | Read Passage A first, answer A-only questions, then read B. Map each passage separately, then compare. |
| 8 | **View/Opinion Identification** | Whose perspective is being presented — author vs critic vs scholar vs general belief | The passage may present multiple views. Track who believes what. | The author's view is often introduced with 'however,' 'in contrast,' or 'I argue that.' Distinguish from others' views. |
| 9 | **Analogy / Application** | Applying passage concepts to a new situation not discussed in the text | 'Which of the following is most analogous to...?' Understand the principle, then match to a new scenario. | Abstract the principle from the passage FIRST (in your own words). Then find the answer that mirrors that principle. |
| 10 | **Strengthen/Weaken (RC)** | Which new information would strengthen or weaken the author's argument? | Same skills as LR strengthen/weaken, applied to passage arguments. | Identify the author's core argument first, then test each answer: does it help or hurt that argument? Passage must provi |
| 11 | **Prephrase** | Formulating a prediction for the answer BEFORE reading the choices | Critical for RC efficiency. Use your passage map and understanding to predict. | Your prephrase doesn't need to match word-for-word. But knowing what you're looking for prevents trap answers from seduc |
| 12 | **Trap Answers (RC)** | Common wrong-answer patterns: half-right/half-wrong, too extreme, true but not the point, reverses relationship | Learn to recognize these patterns. They're consistent across every RC section. | Half-right: correct info + one wrong word. Outside scope: information never mentioned. Distortion: reverses cause/effect |
| 13 | **Vocabulary in Context** | Asks how a word or phrase is used IN THE PASSAGE, not in general | Go back to the line. Read the surrounding sentences. The LSAT meaning may differ from dictionary meaning. | The correct meaning is determined by how the author uses it, not by common usage. Test each answer in the sentence. |
| 14 | **Structure Question** | How is the passage organized? Cause/effect, problem/solution, theory/evidence, chronological? | Look at the overall flow. The first and last paragraphs often frame the structure. | Map the 'big moves': background → problem → proposed solution → objections → author's response → implications. |
| 15 | **Extreme Language** | Words like 'always,' 'never,' 'only,' 'all,' 'none,' 'must,' 'impossible' | Extreme language in answer choices is rarely correct for RC inference/main point questions — unless the passage is equal | If the passage uses 'often' and the answer says 'always' — it's wrong. Match the degree of certainty. |
| 16 | **Moderate Language** | Words like 'some,' 'may,' 'can,' 'sometimes,' 'perhaps,' 'generally' | Moderate language is more often correct (but not always). | Don't auto-pick moderate answers, but be skeptical of extreme ones. The passage's own language is your guide. |
| 17 | **Science Passage Strategy** | Scientific passages with technical terminology, processes, or experiments | Don't get lost in jargon. Focus on the big picture: hypothesis, method, results, implications. | You don't need to understand the science — you need to understand the argument ABOUT the science. |
| 18 | **Law Passage Strategy** | Legal passages with cases, doctrines, or theoretical debates | Identify: the legal principle being discussed, the parties' arguments, the author's position. | Legal passages often have a 'majority vs dissent' or 'old rule vs new rule' structure. Map accordingly. |
| 19 | **Humanities Passage Strategy** | Passages on philosophy, art, literature, history, or culture | Focus on the author's interpretive lens — what unique perspective are they bringing? | These passages often argue for a reinterpretation or challenge a traditional view. Find what's being challenged. |
| 20 | **Timing (RC)** | ~8.5 minutes per passage + questions. 35 minutes total for 4 passages, 26-28 questions. | Read passage in 2-3 minutes, spend 5-6 minutes on questions. | Don't dwell on one passage. If stuck, guess and move on. Come back if time permits. 4 passages at 8.5 min each = 34 min. |
| 21 | **Underlining/Notation** | Active reading technique — mark key terms, transitions, and conclusions | Don't underline everything — that defeats the purpose. Mark only: main point, author's opinion, key transitions. | If you're on a tablet for the digital LSAT, use the highlighter tool strategically. Practice with it. |
| 22 | **Primary Source vs Commentary** | Some RC passages ARE the thing (a legal opinion, a scientific paper). Others are ABOUT the thing. | Know which you're reading. Commentary passages are filtered through a secondary author's lens. | If the passage says 'In her recent book, Professor X argues...' — you're reading commentary, not the original. |

### ✏️ Exercise A: Fill in the Blank
1. **Passage Mapping**: Creating a structural outline of the __________ — not just reading it
2. **Main Point / Primary Purpose**: The central thesis of the passage — __________ the author most wants you to believe
3. **Author's Attitude / Tone**: The author's stance toward the subject __________ critical, supportive, neutral, skeptical, admiring
4. **Inference (RC)**: A conclusion not explicitly stated __________ logically following from the passage
5. **Detail / Retrieval**: Finding specific information explicitly __________ in the passage
6. **Function / Purpose of a Paragraph**: What role does this paragraph __________ in the overall argument?
7. **Comparative Reading**: Two passages on the same topic __________ compare their approaches, agreement, and disagreement
8. **View/Opinion Identification**: Whose perspective is being presented — author __________ critic vs scholar vs general belief
9. **Analogy / Application**: Applying passage concepts to a new __________ not discussed in the text
10. **Strengthen/Weaken (RC)**: Which new information would strengthen __________ weaken the author's argument?

### 🔗 Exercise B: Matching
| Term | Letter |
|------|--------|
| **Passage Mapping** | ___ |
| **Main Point / Primary Purpose** | ___ |
| **Author's Attitude / Tone** | ___ |
| **Inference (RC)** | ___ |
| **Detail / Retrieval** | ___ |
| **Function / Purpose of a Paragraph** | ___ |
| **Comparative Reading** | ___ |
| **View/Opinion Identification** | ___ |
| **Analogy / Application** | ___ |
| **Strengthen/Weaken (RC)** | ___ |

| Letter | Definition |
|--------|------------|
| A | Which new information would strengthen or weaken the author's argument? |
| B | Whose perspective is being presented — author vs critic vs scholar vs general belief |
| C | A conclusion not explicitly stated but logically following from the passage |
| D | What role does this paragraph play in the overall argument? |
| E | The author's stance toward the subject — critical, supportive, neutral, skeptical, admiring |
| F | Finding specific information explicitly stated in the passage |
| G | Creating a structural outline of the passage — not just reading it |
| H | Two passages on the same topic — compare their approaches, agreement, and disagreement |
| I | The central thesis of the passage — what the author most wants you to believe |
| J | Applying passage concepts to a new situation not discussed in the text |

### 📝 Exercise C: LSAT-Style Questions
**1.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Passage Mapping**?
   A) Creating a structural outline of the passage — not just reading it
   B) A conclusion not explicitly stated but logically following from the passage
   C) Look at word choice: 'unfortunately,' 'remarkably,' 'allegedly' are tone cues.
   D) Applying passage concepts to a new situation not discussed in the text

**2.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Main Point / Primary Purpose**?
   A) The central thesis of the passage — what the author most wants you to believe
   B) Formulating a prediction for the answer BEFORE reading the choices
   C) Most RC questions are inference-based. Find the textual support — don't bring outside knowledge.
   D) Applying passage concepts to a new situation not discussed in the text

**3.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Author's Attitude / Tone**?
   A) The author's stance toward the subject — critical, supportive, neutral, skeptical, admiring
   B) Finding specific information explicitly stated in the passage
   C) Look at the overall flow. The first and last paragraphs often frame the structure.
   D) Which new information would strengthen or weaken the author's argument?

**4.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Inference (RC)**?
   A) A conclusion not explicitly stated but logically following from the passage
   B) Words like 'some,' 'may,' 'can,' 'sometimes,' 'perhaps,' 'generally'
   C) Know which you're reading. Commentary passages are filtered through a secondary author's lens.
   D) Asks how a word or phrase is used IN THE PASSAGE, not in general

**5.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Detail / Retrieval**?
   A) Finding specific information explicitly stated in the passage
   B) Two passages on the same topic — compare their approaches, agreement, and disagreement
   C) Go back to the line. Read the surrounding sentences. The LSAT meaning may differ from dictionary mea
   D) Asks how a word or phrase is used IN THE PASSAGE, not in general

---

## ⚖️ Section 4: LSAT Test Strategy (18 Terms)

| # | Term | Definition | LSAT Significance | Test-Day Tip |
|---|------|------------|-------------------|--------------|
| 1 | **Process of Elimination (POE)** | Eliminate wrong answers systematically rather than hunting for the right one | The single most important test-taking strategy. Four wrong answers are easier to find than one right answer. | Apply POE to EVERY question. If you can eliminate 2-3 answers, your odds dramatically improve. |
| 2 | **Timing per Section** | LR: 35 min / 25-26 Q's = ~1:24/Q. LG: 35 min / 4 games = ~8:45/game. RC: 35 min / 4 passages = ~8:45/passage. | Strict time discipline is the #1 factor after reasoning ability. | First 10 LR questions are generally easier — go faster. Last 5-6 tend to be harder — budget more time. |
| 3 | **Skip Strategy** | If you read a stimulus twice and can't identify the argument — SKIP. Mark it and return. | Don't let one hard question eat 4 minutes. Get easy points first. | A skipped question with a guess is the same as a wrong answer (no additional penalty). Come back if time remains. |
| 4 | **Guessing Strategy** | The LSAT has NO penalty for wrong answers. NEVER leave a bubble empty. | Always fill in an answer, even if it's a random guess. You have a 20-25% chance. | In the last minute, fill in ALL remaining bubbles with the same letter. Don't leave any blank. |
| 5 | **Experimental Section** | One of the four scored sections is unscored — you won't know which one | The experimental section looks identical to a scored section. Treat every section as if it counts. | There are 4 scored sections (2 LR, 1 LG, 1 RC) + 1 experimental = 5 total. LSAT Writing is separate. |
| 6 | **LR Question Order** | Questions 1-10: easier. Questions 11-20: medium. Questions 21-25/26: harder. | Pace yourself accordingly. Speed through 1-10 (under 1 min each), invest time on harder ones. | Don't assume the order within a section. Sometimes question 25 is easier than question 23 for you personally. |
| 7 | **Answer Choice Traps** | Half-right/half-wrong, extreme language, out of scope, 180/reversal of logic | Recognize these instantly. Half-right = part of the answer is true but one word makes it wrong. | If you spot a single wrong word, eliminate immediately. Don't talk yourself into an answer because 'most of it is right. |
| 8 | **Two-Pass Method** | First pass: answer everything you can confidently. Second pass: return to skipped/difficult questions. | Prevents getting bogged down. You get the easy points first, then use remaining time on harder ones. | This is the most efficient approach for most test-takers. Practice it. |
| 9 | **Stamina & Endurance** | The LSAT is ~3 hours + writing. Build mental endurance through full-length practice tests. | Take at least 5-10 full, timed practice tests before test day. Simulate test conditions. | Treat every practice test like the real thing: same start time, same breaks, no phone, no interruptions. |
| 10 | **Wrong Answer Journal** | Track every question you get wrong: what was your error, what should you have done? | Error patterns reveal weak spots. Do you always miss 'necessary assumption'? Drill that question type. | Categorize errors: misreading (read too fast), reasoning gap (didn't see the logic), trap answer (chose the attractive w |
| 11 | **Pre-Test Routine** | Week before: light review, no new material. Night before: pack bag, set alarm, sleep. Morning: eat protein, arrive early | Don't cram. The LSAT tests skills, not memorization. You're better off rested than cramming. | Pack: admission ticket, valid ID, pencils, eraser, highlighter (if allowed), snacks, water, watch (analog), layers. |
| 12 | **Section Management** | Each section: first 30 seconds scan — how many questions? How many games/passages? Any that look extra hard? | Brief orientation prevents surprises. Decide which game/passage to tackle last. | Do the easiest games first. For RC, do your strongest passage type first. Build confidence and momentum. |
| 13 | **Reviewing Answers** | If time permits, review flagged questions. Do NOT second-guess correct answers you were confident about. | Review only questions you were unsure about. Your first instinct is usually right for confident answers. | Change answers only if you have a clear reason. 'I just have a bad feeling' is not a reason — trust your initial reasoni |
| 14 | **Mental Game** | Manage anxiety through preparation, breathing, and perspective | Anxiety impairs reasoning. Practice mindfulness. The LSAT is learnable — you've prepared for this. | If you freeze on a question: close your eyes, breathe deeply for 10 seconds, then re-read and POE. |
| 15 | **LSAT Writing** | A separate, unscored writing sample. Persuasive essay: choose between two options and argue for your choice. | Complete within 8 days before score release. Not scored, but law schools see it. | Structure: intro (state choice), body paragraphs (reasons + address counterarguments), conclusion. Clear > clever. |
| 16 | **Digital LSAT Format** | Tablet-based test with stylus, timer, highlighter, flagging. | Practice on LSAC's official digital platform so you're comfortable with the interface. | Keyboard shortcuts: Ctrl+F for find, Esc to clear highlights. Learn the flagging and navigation features. |
| 17 | **Official Practice Tests** | LSAC released PrepTests (PT 80+) — the most valuable study resource | Take them timed. Review EVERY question, not just wrong ones. Understand why right answers are right. | The newer the PrepTest, the more representative. PT 85+ most closely mirror current test difficulty and structure. |
| 18 | **Score Scale** | LSAT scored 120-180. Raw score (Q's correct) converted to scaled score via equating. | 160 = ~80th percentile. 170 = ~97th percentile. 175+ = ~99th percentile. | Each test has a slightly different conversion curve. Don't obsess — focus on increasing raw score. |

### ✏️ Exercise A: Fill in the Blank
1. **Process of Elimination (POE)**: Eliminate wrong answers systematically rather __________ hunting for the right one
2. **Timing per Section**: LR: 35 min / 25-26 Q's = ~1:24/Q. LG: 35 min / __________ games = ~8:45/game. RC: 35 min / 4 passages = ~8:45/passage.
3. **Skip Strategy**: If you read a stimulus twice and can't __________ the argument — SKIP. Mark it and return.
4. **Guessing Strategy**: The LSAT has NO penalty for __________ answers. NEVER leave a bubble empty.
5. **Experimental Section**: One of the four scored sections is __________ — you won't know which one
6. **LR Question Order**: Questions 1-10: easier. Questions __________ medium. Questions 21-25/26: harder.
7. **Answer Choice Traps**: Half-right/half-wrong, extreme language, out __________ scope, 180/reversal of logic
8. **Two-Pass Method**: First pass: answer everything you can __________ Second pass: return to skipped/difficult questions.
9. **Stamina & Endurance**: The LSAT is ~3 hours + writing. __________ mental endurance through full-length practice tests.
10. **Wrong Answer Journal**: Track every question you get wrong: what __________ your error, what should you have done?

### 🔗 Exercise B: Matching
| Term | Letter |
|------|--------|
| **Process of Elimination (POE)** | ___ |
| **Timing per Section** | ___ |
| **Skip Strategy** | ___ |
| **Guessing Strategy** | ___ |
| **Experimental Section** | ___ |
| **LR Question Order** | ___ |
| **Answer Choice Traps** | ___ |
| **Two-Pass Method** | ___ |
| **Stamina & Endurance** | ___ |
| **Wrong Answer Journal** | ___ |

| Letter | Definition |
|--------|------------|
| A | If you read a stimulus twice and can't identify the argument — SKIP. Mark it and return. |
| B | Track every question you get wrong: what was your error, what should you have done? |
| C | Eliminate wrong answers systematically rather than hunting for the right one |
| D | Half-right/half-wrong, extreme language, out of scope, 180/reversal of logic |
| E | First pass: answer everything you can confidently. Second pass: return to skipped/difficult question |
| F | Questions 1-10: easier. Questions 11-20: medium. Questions 21-25/26: harder. |
| G | The LSAT is ~3 hours + writing. Build mental endurance through full-length practice tests. |
| H | LR: 35 min / 25-26 Q's = ~1:24/Q. LG: 35 min / 4 games = ~8:45/game. RC: 35 min / 4 passages = ~8:45 |
| I | One of the four scored sections is unscored — you won't know which one |
| J | The LSAT has NO penalty for wrong answers. NEVER leave a bubble empty. |

### 📝 Exercise C: LSAT-Style Questions
**1.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Process of Elimination (POE)**?
   A) Eliminate wrong answers systematically rather than hunting for the right one
   B) Manage anxiety through preparation, breathing, and perspective
   C) Error patterns reveal weak spots. Do you always miss 'necessary assumption'? Drill that question typ
   D) The LSAT is ~3 hours + writing. Build mental endurance through full-length practice tests.

**2.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Timing per Section**?
   A) LR: 35 min / 25-26 Q's = ~1:24/Q. LG: 35 min / 4 games = ~8:45/game. RC: 35 min / 4 passages = ~8:45
   B) Each section: first 30 seconds scan — how many questions? How many games/passages? Any that look ext
   C) Don't let one hard question eat 4 minutes. Get easy points first.
   D) The LSAT is ~3 hours + writing. Build mental endurance through full-length practice tests.

**3.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Skip Strategy**?
   A) If you read a stimulus twice and can't identify the argument — SKIP. Mark it and return.
   B) LR: 35 min / 25-26 Q's = ~1:24/Q. LG: 35 min / 4 games = ~8:45/game. RC: 35 min / 4 passages = ~8:45
   C) Brief orientation prevents surprises. Decide which game/passage to tackle last.
   D) Manage anxiety through preparation, breathing, and perspective

**4.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Guessing Strategy**?
   A) The LSAT has NO penalty for wrong answers. NEVER leave a bubble empty.
   B) Track every question you get wrong: what was your error, what should you have done?
   C) Don't let one hard question eat 4 minutes. Get easy points first.
   D) First pass: answer everything you can confidently. Second pass: return to skipped/difficult question

**5.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Experimental Section**?
   A) One of the four scored sections is unscored — you won't know which one
   B) Each section: first 30 seconds scan — how many questions? How many games/passages? Any that look ext
   C) Prevents getting bogged down. You get the easy points first, then use remaining time on harder ones.
   D) LSAC released PrepTests (PT 80+) — the most valuable study resource

---

## ⚖️ Section 5: Formal Logic & Conditional Reasoning (20 Terms)

| # | Term | Definition | LSAT Significance | Test-Day Tip |
|---|------|------------|-------------------|--------------|
| 1 | **If/Then Statement** | 'If P, then Q' — a conditional statement where P is sufficient for Q | The foundation of all formal logic on the LSAT. P → Q. | If the sufficient condition is met, the necessary MUST follow. If not, the conditional tells us nothing. |
| 2 | **Only If** | 'P only if Q' means 'If P, then Q' — Q is necessary for P | Commonly confused with 'if.' 'I go only if you go' = If I go → you go. | 'Only if' introduces the NECESSARY condition (right side of the arrow). The word 'only' is the giveaway. |
| 3 | **Unless** | 'Unless P, Q' = 'If not P, then Q' or equivalently 'Q unless P' = 'If not P, then Q' | 'Unless' means 'if not.' Negate the 'unless' part and make it the sufficient condition. | 'I'll go unless it rains' = 'If it doesn't rain, I'll go.' Equivalent: 'If I don't go, it must be raining.' |
| 4 | **Without** | 'Without P, Q cannot happen' = 'If Q, then P' — P is necessary for Q | Similar to 'unless.' 'Without' introduces a necessary condition. | 'You cannot succeed without effort' = If you succeed → you put in effort. Effort is necessary. |
| 5 | **Biconditional** | 'If and only if' — P ↔ Q. P and Q are both sufficient AND necessary for each other. | 'The meeting happens if and only if the CEO attends.' Both go together or neither does. | P↔Q = (P→Q) AND (Q→P). Both directions are true. The two conditions are logically equivalent. |
| 6 | **Transitive Property** | If P→Q and Q→R, then P→R. Chain conditionals together. | The most powerful deduction tool. Create chains from multiple conditional statements. | Watch for common terms: if A→B and B→C, you can deduce A→C. Valid ONLY if the middle term matches exactly. |
| 7 | **Denying the Consequent** | Valid inference: if P→Q and NOT Q, then NOT P | This is the contrapositive — the only 100% valid inference from a single conditional. | Form: P→Q, ~Q ⊢ ~P. Always valid. This alone answers questions in LR and unlocks deductions in LG. |
| 8 | **Affirming the Antecedent** | Valid inference: if P→Q and P, then Q (Modus Ponens) | The most basic valid inference. If the sufficient condition is true, the necessary must follow. | Form: P→Q, P ⊢ Q. Simple but powerful. This is the forward direction of the conditional. |
| 9 | **Affirming the Consequent (FALLACY)** | Invalid: P→Q and Q is true, therefore P is true. Q can happen without P. | NCLEX trap: Don't assume the sufficient condition is true just because the necessary is. | Form: P→Q, Q ⊢ P. INVALID. Example: 'All dogs are mammals. This is a mammal. Therefore it's a dog.' Nope. |
| 10 | **Denying the Antecedent (FALLACY)** | Invalid: P→Q and P is false, therefore Q is false. Q may still be true without P. | Form: P→Q, ~P ⊢ ~Q. INVALID. | Example: 'If it rains, the ground is wet. It's not raining. Therefore the ground is not wet.' (Sprinkler?) |
| 11 | **Some** | At least one, possibly all. 'Some dogs are brown' = there is at least one brown dog. | 'Some' on the LSAT means 'at least one.' It does NOT exclude 'all.' | 'Some A are B' is reversible: 'Some B are A.' This is the ONLY quantifier that's always reversible. |
| 12 | **Most** | More than half. 'Most A are B' = the majority of A are B. | Not reversible like 'some.' 'Most A are B' does NOT mean 'most B are A.' | 'Most cats are pets' ≠ 'most pets are cats.' Directionality matters. Most is not the same as 'all' or 'some.' |
| 13 | **All / Every** | 100% inclusion. 'All A are B' = every single A is also a B. | Rule form: A → B. 'All' introduces a conditional relationship. | 'All A are B' implies 'some A are B' (assuming at least one A exists — the LSAT generally assumes existence in LR). |
| 14 | **None / No** | 0% inclusion. 'No A are B' = zero overlap between A and B. | Rule form: A → ~B. 'No A is B' means every A is not B. | 'No doctors are unemployed' = D → ~U. Equivalent: 'All doctors are employed.' |
| 15 | **Quantifier Logic** | Combining 'some,' 'most,' and 'all' statements — what valid conclusions can be drawn? | Some + Some = nothing. Some + Most = nothing. Most + Most = some. All + Most = some. All + Some = some. | Only combine at the 'all' or 'most' level. Two 'some' statements stacked on the same term yield nothing. |
| 16 | **Double Negation** | NOT NOT P = P. Two negations cancel out. | 'It is not true that John is not guilty' = John is guilty. | Double negatives are logically equivalent to the affirmative. Recognize them in stimulus and answer choices. |
| 17 | **DeMorgan's Laws** | NOT (P AND Q) = NOT P OR NOT Q. NOT (P OR Q) = NOT P AND NOT Q. | For negating compound statements. ',' translates 'and' → 'or' when negated. | 'It's not true that both A and B are selected' = At least one of A or B is NOT selected. |
| 18 | **Mutually Exclusive** | Two conditions that cannot both be true. If one is true, the other is false. | Rule: A → ~B, B → ~A. They push each other out. | Note: 'cannot both be true' does NOT mean 'one must be true.' Both could be false unless 'either/or' is also given. |
| 19 | **Logically Equivalent** | Two statements that have exactly the same truth value in all circumstances | Contrapositive = logically equivalent to the original. Double negation = logically equivalent. | 'P→Q' is logically equivalent to '~Q→~P.' NOT equivalent to 'Q→P' or '~P→~Q.' |
| 20 | **Diagramming Shorthand** | Consistent notation: → for conditional, ~ for NOT, ↔ for biconditional, ∴ for therefore | Develop a system and use it consistently. Speed and accuracy depend on automatic notation. | Your shorthand is for YOU. It doesn't need to be elegant — it needs to be fast and unambiguous. |

### ✏️ Exercise A: Fill in the Blank
1. **If/Then Statement**: 'If P, then Q' — a conditional __________ where P is sufficient for Q
2. **Only If**: 'P only if Q' means 'If P, __________ Q' — Q is necessary for P
3. **Unless**: 'Unless P, Q' = 'If not P, then Q' or __________ 'Q unless P' = 'If not P, then Q'
4. **Without**: 'Without P, Q cannot happen' = 'If Q, __________ P' — P is necessary for Q
5. **Biconditional**: 'If and only if' — P ↔ Q. P __________ Q are both sufficient AND necessary for each other.
6. **Transitive Property**: If P→Q and Q→R, __________ P→R. Chain conditionals together.
7. **Denying the Consequent**: Valid inference: if P→Q and __________ Q, then NOT P
8. **Affirming the Antecedent**: Valid inference: if P→Q and __________ then Q (Modus Ponens)
9. **Affirming the Consequent (FALLACY)**: Invalid: P→Q and Q is true, therefore __________ is true. Q can happen without P.
10. **Denying the Antecedent (FALLACY)**: Invalid: P→Q and P is false, therefore Q __________ false. Q may still be true without P.

### 🔗 Exercise B: Matching
| Term | Letter |
|------|--------|
| **If/Then Statement** | ___ |
| **Only If** | ___ |
| **Unless** | ___ |
| **Without** | ___ |
| **Biconditional** | ___ |
| **Transitive Property** | ___ |
| **Denying the Consequent** | ___ |
| **Affirming the Antecedent** | ___ |
| **Affirming the Consequent (FALLACY)** | ___ |
| **Denying the Antecedent (FALLACY)** | ___ |

| Letter | Definition |
|--------|------------|
| A | 'If P, then Q' — a conditional statement where P is sufficient for Q |
| B | 'If and only if' — P ↔ Q. P and Q are both sufficient AND necessary for each other. |
| C | 'Without P, Q cannot happen' = 'If Q, then P' — P is necessary for Q |
| D | Invalid: P→Q and P is false, therefore Q is false. Q may still be true without P. |
| E | If P→Q and Q→R, then P→R. Chain conditionals together. |
| F | 'P only if Q' means 'If P, then Q' — Q is necessary for P |
| G | Invalid: P→Q and Q is true, therefore P is true. Q can happen without P. |
| H | 'Unless P, Q' = 'If not P, then Q' or equivalently 'Q unless P' = 'If not P, then Q' |
| I | Valid inference: if P→Q and P, then Q (Modus Ponens) |
| J | Valid inference: if P→Q and NOT Q, then NOT P |

### 📝 Exercise C: LSAT-Style Questions
**1.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **If/Then Statement**?
   A) 'If P, then Q' — a conditional statement where P is sufficient for Q
   B) Consistent notation: → for conditional, ~ for NOT, ↔ for biconditional, ∴ for therefore
   C) Rule form: A → ~B. 'No A is B' means every A is not B.
   D) 100% inclusion. 'All A are B' = every single A is also a B.

**2.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Only If**?
   A) 'P only if Q' means 'If P, then Q' — Q is necessary for P
   B) Invalid: P→Q and Q is true, therefore P is true. Q can happen without P.
   C) The most powerful deduction tool. Create chains from multiple conditional statements.
   D) Two conditions that cannot both be true. If one is true, the other is false.

**3.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Unless**?
   A) 'Unless P, Q' = 'If not P, then Q' or equivalently 'Q unless P' = 'If not P, then Q'
   B) NOT (P AND Q) = NOT P OR NOT Q. NOT (P OR Q) = NOT P AND NOT Q.
   C) Similar to 'unless.' 'Without' introduces a necessary condition.
   D) 'P only if Q' means 'If P, then Q' — Q is necessary for P

**4.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Without**?
   A) 'Without P, Q cannot happen' = 'If Q, then P' — P is necessary for Q
   B) 'If and only if' — P ↔ Q. P and Q are both sufficient AND necessary for each other.
   C) The most powerful deduction tool. Create chains from multiple conditional statements.
   D) Valid inference: if P→Q and NOT Q, then NOT P

**5.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Biconditional**?
   A) 'If and only if' — P ↔ Q. P and Q are both sufficient AND necessary for each other.
   B) Combining 'some,' 'most,' and 'all' statements — what valid conclusions can be drawn?
   C) 'Unless' means 'if not.' Negate the 'unless' part and make it the sufficient condition.
   D) 0% inclusion. 'No A are B' = zero overlap between A and B.

---

## ⚖️ Section 6: Common Flaw Types (20 Terms)

| # | Term | Definition | LSAT Significance | Test-Day Tip |
|---|------|------------|-------------------|--------------|
| 1 | **Causation Flaw** | Assuming correlation (X and Y occur together) implies causation (X causes Y) | The single most tested flaw type. Just because two things happen together doesn't mean one caused the other. | Possible alternatives: reverse causation (Y→X), third factor (Z→X and Z→Y), coincidence, sampling error. |
| 2 | **Overgeneralization / Sampling Flaw** | Drawing a general conclusion from an unrepresentative or too-small sample | 'I surveyed my 3 friends, therefore all Americans think...' — sample is too small and not random. | Check: is the sample random? Large enough? Representative of the whole population? Self-selected samples are suspect. |
| 3 | **False Dichotomy / False Dilemma** | Presenting two alternatives as if they are the only possibilities when others exist | 'Either we cut spending or raise taxes. Cutting spending is bad, so we must raise taxes.' Maybe there's a third way. | Look for the excluded middle option. The correct answer identifies what other possibilities exist. |
| 4 | **Ad Hominem** | Attacking the person making the argument instead of the argument itself | 'You can't trust his economic policy — he's been divorced three times.' Personal life ≠ policy merit. | Distinguish: character attack vs legitimate credibility challenge. If past behavior is DIRECTLY relevant to the claim, i |
| 5 | **Appeal to Authority** | Citing an unqualified authority as evidence | 'My doctor says this investment is good.' A doctor's expertise doesn't extend to finance. | Ask: (1) Is this person an expert in THIS field? (2) Is there consensus among experts? (3) Does the authority have bias? |
| 6 | **Circular Reasoning** | The conclusion restates a premise or presupposes the conclusion | 'This law is just because it is fair.' Just and fair are synonyms — no actual reasoning provided. | The premise and conclusion say the same thing in different words. The argument assumes what it sets out to prove. |
| 7 | **Equivocation** | Using a word in two different senses within the same argument | 'Banks are financial institutions. River banks are made of mud. Therefore banks are muddy.' Bank shifted meaning. | Track key terms. When the conclusion uses a term differently than the premises did, you have equivocation. |
| 8 | **Straw Man** | Misrepresenting an opponent's argument to make it easier to attack | 'You support reducing military spending, so you want to leave the country defenseless.' That's not what was argued. | Ask: does the response address what the opponent actually said, or a distorted version? The distortion is the flaw. |
| 9 | **Composition / Division** | Composition: assuming what's true of parts is true of the whole. Division: assuming what's true of the whole is true of  | Composition: each player is great → team is great. Division: team is great → each player is great. Both invalid. | Properties of parts don't always transfer to the whole (synergy, chemistry) and vice versa (outliers within groups). |
| 10 | **Appeal to Emotion** | Using emotional manipulation rather than logical reasoning | 'Think of the children!' — emotion may persuade but it doesn't prove the argument. | The LSAT often uses emotionally charged scenarios. Separate your emotional reaction from the logical structure. |
| 11 | **Begging the Question** | Assuming the truth of what you're trying to prove — the premise and conclusion are essentially the same | 'Reading is beneficial because it's good for you.' Beneficial and good mean the same thing — no evidence given. | Very similar to circular reasoning. The distinction: circular reasoning goes in a loop. Begging the question just assume |
| 12 | **Slippery Slope** | Assuming one action will inevitably lead to a chain of increasingly bad consequences | 'If we allow students to redo exams, soon they'll expect to redo everything, then no one will ever study.' | Each step in the chain must be shown to follow. Without evidence for each link, the slope isn't slippery — it's speculat |
| 13 | **Confusing Necessary and Sufficient** | Treating a necessary condition as if it's sufficient, or vice versa | 'To get an A, you need to study. You studied, so you'll get an A.' Studying is necessary, not sufficient. | Classic LSAT trap. Know: sufficient = enough. Necessary = required. They are not the same. |
| 14 | **Time Shift Flaw** | Assuming conditions in the past will persist into the future, or that past data reflects current reality | 'Last year sales were up, so this year they'll be up too.' Past ≠ future without evidence of continuity. | Temporal assumptions are rarely justified without explicit reasoning. Look for 'has been' → 'will continue to be' leaps. |
| 15 | **Percent vs Amount Confusion** | Treating a percentage change as equivalent to a numerical change | 'Crime went up 50%' is meaningless without the base — 1→1.5 crimes vs 1000→1500 crimes are very different. | Always check: percent of WHAT? What's the base number? A percentage alone doesn't tell you magnitude. |
| 16 | **Absence of Evidence Flaw** | Assuming that because there's no evidence FOR something, there IS evidence AGAINST it | 'No study has proven this herb works, so it doesn't work.' Absence of proof ≠ proof of absence. | Lack of research could mean: nobody studied it, studies were inconclusive, or it truly doesn't work. You can't conclude  |
| 17 | **Appeal to Popularity** | Assuming something is true or good because many people believe it | 'Millions use this product, so it must work.' Popularity ≠ validity. | Also called 'bandwagon' or 'ad populum.' Truth is independent of how many people believe it. |
| 18 | **Red Herring** | Introducing an irrelevant topic to divert attention from the issue at hand | 'Why worry about the deficit when people are starving?' Both are problems — one doesn't cancel the other. | The introduced topic is emotionally charged but logically irrelevant to the original argument. |
| 19 | **Hasty Generalization** | Drawing a conclusion from insufficient evidence — a single example doesn't prove a rule | 'I met one rude New Yorker, so all New Yorkers are rude.' One data point doesn't establish a pattern. | The sample size is the giveaway: 'one,' 'a single,' 'a few,' 'I once' — these words signal hasty generalization. |
| 20 | **Survey Flaw** | Problems with survey methodology: biased questions, self-selection, small sample, non-response bias | LSAT loves surveys. Always check: who was surveyed, how, when, and who responded. | Specific issues: (1) were questions leading? (2) who chose to respond? (3) did respondents understand the questions? |

### ✏️ Exercise A: Fill in the Blank
1. **Causation Flaw**: Assuming correlation (X and Y occur __________ implies causation (X causes Y)
2. **Overgeneralization / Sampling Flaw**: Drawing a general conclusion from __________ unrepresentative or too-small sample
3. **False Dichotomy / False Dilemma**: Presenting two alternatives as if they __________ the only possibilities when others exist
4. **Ad Hominem**: Attacking the person making the __________ instead of the argument itself
5. **Appeal to Authority**: Citing an unqualified __________ as evidence
6. **Circular Reasoning**: The conclusion restates a __________ or presupposes the conclusion
7. **Equivocation**: Using a word in two __________ senses within the same argument
8. **Straw Man**: Misrepresenting an opponent's argument to __________ it easier to attack
9. **Composition / Division**: Composition: assuming what's true of parts is true of the whole. __________ assuming what's true of the whole is true of parts.
10. **Appeal to Emotion**: Using emotional manipulation __________ than logical reasoning

### 🔗 Exercise B: Matching
| Term | Letter |
|------|--------|
| **Causation Flaw** | ___ |
| **Overgeneralization / Sampling Flaw** | ___ |
| **False Dichotomy / False Dilemma** | ___ |
| **Ad Hominem** | ___ |
| **Appeal to Authority** | ___ |
| **Circular Reasoning** | ___ |
| **Equivocation** | ___ |
| **Straw Man** | ___ |
| **Composition / Division** | ___ |
| **Appeal to Emotion** | ___ |

| Letter | Definition |
|--------|------------|
| A | Using emotional manipulation rather than logical reasoning |
| B | Drawing a general conclusion from an unrepresentative or too-small sample |
| C | Attacking the person making the argument instead of the argument itself |
| D | Presenting two alternatives as if they are the only possibilities when others exist |
| E | The conclusion restates a premise or presupposes the conclusion |
| F | Assuming correlation (X and Y occur together) implies causation (X causes Y) |
| G | Composition: assuming what's true of parts is true of the whole. Division: assuming what's true of t |
| H | Citing an unqualified authority as evidence |
| I | Misrepresenting an opponent's argument to make it easier to attack |
| J | Using a word in two different senses within the same argument |

### 📝 Exercise C: LSAT-Style Questions
**1.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Causation Flaw**?
   A) Assuming correlation (X and Y occur together) implies causation (X causes Y)
   B) Citing an unqualified authority as evidence
   C) 'Reading is beneficial because it's good for you.' Beneficial and good mean the same thing — no evid
   D) Treating a percentage change as equivalent to a numerical change

**2.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Overgeneralization / Sampling Flaw**?
   A) Drawing a general conclusion from an unrepresentative or too-small sample
   B) Using a word in two different senses within the same argument
   C) 'No study has proven this herb works, so it doesn't work.' Absence of proof ≠ proof of absence.
   D) Assuming correlation (X and Y occur together) implies causation (X causes Y)

**3.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **False Dichotomy / False Dilemma**?
   A) Presenting two alternatives as if they are the only possibilities when others exist
   B) Using emotional manipulation rather than logical reasoning
   C) 'Why worry about the deficit when people are starving?' Both are problems — one doesn't cancel the o
   D) Using a word in two different senses within the same argument

**4.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Ad Hominem**?
   A) Attacking the person making the argument instead of the argument itself
   B) Introducing an irrelevant topic to divert attention from the issue at hand
   C) 'My doctor says this investment is good.' A doctor's expertise doesn't extend to finance.
   D) Assuming the truth of what you're trying to prove — the premise and conclusion are essentially the s

**5.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Appeal to Authority**?
   A) Citing an unqualified authority as evidence
   B) Introducing an irrelevant topic to divert attention from the issue at hand
   C) 'You support reducing military spending, so you want to leave the country defenseless.' That's not w
   D) The conclusion restates a premise or presupposes the conclusion

---

## ⚖️ Section 7: Question Type Mastery (20 Terms)

| # | Term | Definition | LSAT Significance | Test-Day Tip |
|---|------|------------|-------------------|--------------|
| 1 | **Must Be True / Most Strongly Supported** | Find the answer choice that must be true or is most strongly supported by the stimulus | Accept stimulus as true. The answer is a deduction or reasonable inference. No outside information. | Wrong answers: could be false, not supported by stimulus, contradict the stimulus, or require additional assumptions. |
| 2 | **Main Point / Main Conclusion** | Identify the primary conclusion the author is trying to prove | Find what the entire argument builds toward. Not a sub-conclusion or premise. | 'Which of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion?' The answer restates the author's central claim. |
| 3 | **Assumption (Necessary)** | Find the statement that the argument REQUIRES to be true — without it, the argument fails | Use the Negation Test: negate each answer. If negation destroys the argument, that's your correct assumption. | Defender assumptions (block objections) and Supporter assumptions (link premises to conclusion). Know both patterns. |
| 4 | **Sufficient Assumption / Justify** | Find the statement that, if true, GUARANTEES the conclusion follows | The answer, combined with premises, makes the conclusion logically airtight. | Stronger than necessary assumption. Look for answers that connect all premises to the conclusion using strong language. |
| 5 | **Strengthen** | Find the answer that makes the argument MORE likely to be correct | Supports the link between premises and conclusion. Doesn't need to prove it, just help it. | Eliminate weakeners and irrelevant answers. The correct answer adds support in the direction of the conclusion. |
| 6 | **Weaken** | Find the answer that makes the argument LESS likely to be correct | Attacks the reasoning. Most common: alternative cause, reversed causation, counterexample, data that contradicts. | The #1 weaken answer: an alternative explanation for the evidence that's consistent with the conclusion being false. |
| 7 | **Flaw** | Describe the logical error in the argument's reasoning | Identify the flaw in the stimulus, then find the answer that describes that flaw. | Abstract the error in your own words before looking at answers. Most flaw answers are descriptions of known flaw types. |
| 8 | **Parallel Reasoning / Parallel Flaw** | Match the logical structure of the stimulus to an answer choice | Abstract: what's the argument structure? Match it. For parallel flaw, match the specific flaw type. | Method: (1) identify the conclusion, (2) note the reasoning style, (3) match to answers. Ignore topic — structure is wha |
| 9 | **Method of Reasoning / Method of Argument** | Describe the technique the author uses to make their argument | Common methods: analogy, counterexample, elimination, generalization, appeal to authority, reductio ad absurdum. | Ask: what is the author DOING to convince you? Not what they're saying, but how they're saying it. |
| 10 | **Role / Function** | Identify the role a specific statement plays in the argument | Is it: the main conclusion, a premise, an intermediate conclusion, a concession, background, a counterargument? | Read the statement in context. What job does it do? The same words could serve different roles in different arguments. |
| 11 | **Point at Issue / Point of Agreement** | For two-speaker questions: what do they disagree/agree about? | Must be a point BOTH speakers address and take different (or the same) positions on. | Identify each speaker's claim. Then find the answer that captures the intersection where their views diverge or align. |
| 12 | **Paradox / Discrepancy / Explain** | Two facts seem contradictory but both are true — explain how | The correct answer explains BOTH facts simultaneously. One fact can't be 'explained away' in a way that contradicts the  | Wrong answers: explain one fact but conflict with the other, or explain neither. Both facts must remain true. |
| 13 | **Principle (Identify)** | Find the general principle that underlies the specific argument | Go from specific to general. Abstract the ethical or logical rule the argument follows. | The principle should capture the reasoning. If you violate the principle, the argument no longer works. |
| 14 | **Principle (Apply)** | Apply a given principle to a specific scenario — find the answer that conforms to or violates the principle | The principle is the rule. Test each answer: does this scenario follow the rule or break it? | Match the scope of the principle to the scope of each answer. Principles with 'all,' 'only,' and 'must' have strict scop |
| 15 | **Evaluate the Argument** | Which question/answer would be most useful in assessing the argument's validity? | Think: what missing information do I need? The answer, if known, would significantly strengthen OR weaken. | The correct answer is a question whose answer could go either way — and that would affect how you judge the argument. |
| 16 | **Cannot Be True / Must Be False** | Find the answer that contradicts the stimulus or cannot be true given the stimulus information | The stimulus is true. The correct answer contradicts it. All wrong answers COULD be true. | Test each: could this be true? If yes, eliminate. Only one answer is impossible given the stimulus. |
| 17 | **Resolve the Paradox** | Two facts seem inconsistent. The correct answer explains how both can be true. | Note: you're not choosing between the facts — both are true. You're explaining how they coexist. | The answer adds information that reconciles the apparent contradiction. It typically reveals a hidden variable. |
| 18 | **Argument Part** | Identify the role of a bolded or referenced phrase — similar to Role/Function but explicitly keyed to a highlighted phra | 'The claim that [X] plays which role?' Read the context carefully. | Don't just look at the phrase — look at what it's doing in the argument. Is it a claim the author supports or opposes? |
| 19 | **Complete the Passage** | Fill in the blank — choose the answer that logically completes the argument | The blank is usually the conclusion (most common) or a premise needed to reach the stated conclusion. | Read: what comes before the blank is setting you up. The answer must flow naturally from the preceding reasoning. |
| 20 | **Except / Least Questions** | 'All of the following strengthen EXCEPT:' — find the answer that does NOT do what the others do | Four answers strengthen, one doesn't (it weakens, is neutral, or irrelevant). The 'odd one out' is correct. | Slow down for EXCEPT questions. It's easy to pick an answer that strengthens. Circle 'EXCEPT' to keep it in focus. |

### ✏️ Exercise A: Fill in the Blank
1. **Must Be True / Most Strongly Supported**: Find the answer choice that must be true __________ is most strongly supported by the stimulus
2. **Main Point / Main Conclusion**: Identify the primary conclusion the __________ is trying to prove
3. **Assumption (Necessary)**: Find the statement that the argument REQUIRES to __________ true — without it, the argument fails
4. **Sufficient Assumption / Justify**: Find the statement that, if __________ GUARANTEES the conclusion follows
5. **Strengthen**: Find the answer that makes the __________ MORE likely to be correct
6. **Weaken**: Find the answer that makes the __________ LESS likely to be correct
7. **Flaw**: Describe the logical error __________ the argument's reasoning
8. **Parallel Reasoning / Parallel Flaw**: Match the logical structure of __________ stimulus to an answer choice
9. **Method of Reasoning / Method of Argument**: Describe the technique the author __________ to make their argument
10. **Role / Function**: Identify the role a specific __________ plays in the argument

### 🔗 Exercise B: Matching
| Term | Letter |
|------|--------|
| **Must Be True / Most Strongly Supported** | ___ |
| **Main Point / Main Conclusion** | ___ |
| **Assumption (Necessary)** | ___ |
| **Sufficient Assumption / Justify** | ___ |
| **Strengthen** | ___ |
| **Weaken** | ___ |
| **Flaw** | ___ |
| **Parallel Reasoning / Parallel Flaw** | ___ |
| **Method of Reasoning / Method of Argument** | ___ |
| **Role / Function** | ___ |

| Letter | Definition |
|--------|------------|
| A | Identify the role a specific statement plays in the argument |
| B | Identify the primary conclusion the author is trying to prove |
| C | Describe the logical error in the argument's reasoning |
| D | Match the logical structure of the stimulus to an answer choice |
| E | Find the statement that, if true, GUARANTEES the conclusion follows |
| F | Describe the technique the author uses to make their argument |
| G | Find the answer that makes the argument MORE likely to be correct |
| H | Find the answer choice that must be true or is most strongly supported by the stimulus |
| I | Find the statement that the argument REQUIRES to be true — without it, the argument fails |
| J | Find the answer that makes the argument LESS likely to be correct |

### 📝 Exercise C: LSAT-Style Questions
**1.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Must Be True / Most Strongly Supported**?
   A) Find the answer choice that must be true or is most strongly supported by the stimulus
   B) For two-speaker questions: what do they disagree/agree about?
   C) Common methods: analogy, counterexample, elimination, generalization, appeal to authority, reductio 
   D) Find the statement that the argument REQUIRES to be true — without it, the argument fails

**2.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Main Point / Main Conclusion**?
   A) Identify the primary conclusion the author is trying to prove
   B) Describe the technique the author uses to make their argument
   C) Four answers strengthen, one doesn't (it weakens, is neutral, or irrelevant). The 'odd one out' is c
   D) Find the statement that, if true, GUARANTEES the conclusion follows

**3.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Assumption (Necessary)**?
   A) Find the statement that the argument REQUIRES to be true — without it, the argument fails
   B) Find the statement that, if true, GUARANTEES the conclusion follows
   C) Note: you're not choosing between the facts — both are true. You're explaining how they coexist.
   D) Find the statement that, if true, GUARANTEES the conclusion follows

**4.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Sufficient Assumption / Justify**?
   A) Find the statement that, if true, GUARANTEES the conclusion follows
   B) Fill in the blank — choose the answer that logically completes the argument
   C) Attacks the reasoning. Most common: alternative cause, reversed causation, counterexample, data that
   D) Find the answer that makes the argument LESS likely to be correct

**5.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Strengthen**?
   A) Find the answer that makes the argument MORE likely to be correct
   B) Two facts seem inconsistent. The correct answer explains how both can be true.
   C) The blank is usually the conclusion (most common) or a premise needed to reach the stated conclusion
   D) Describe the logical error in the argument's reasoning

---

## ⚖️ Section 8: LSAT Vocabulary & Key Terms (15 Terms)

| # | Term | Definition | LSAT Significance | Test-Day Tip |
|---|------|------------|-------------------|--------------|
| 1 | **Prima Facie** | At first sight; based on first impression — sufficient to establish a fact unless disproved | Appears in RC passages about legal standards. A prima facie case shifts the burden of proof. | 'On its face.' Used in legal reasoning passages: 'The plaintiff established a prima facie case of discrimination.' |
| 2 | **Amicus Curiae** | 'Friend of the court' — a person/organization not a party to the case who offers information | Appears in law-related RC passages. Amicus briefs are submitted to influence the court. | Not a direct party but has a strong interest. Typically filed by advocacy groups, academics, or government entities. |
| 3 | **Stare Decisis** | 'To stand by things decided' — the doctrine of precedent | Courts follow previous rulings. A core principle discussed in many legal RC passages. | When a court overturns precedent, it's 'overruling' — this is a significant legal event often discussed in RC passages. |
| 4 | **A Priori / A Posteriori** | A priori: knowledge independent of experience (logical deduction). A posteriori: knowledge from experience (empirical). | Key terms in philosophy/theory passages. Distinguishes between reasoning from principles vs reasoning from observation. | A priori: 'All bachelors are unmarried' (true by definition). A posteriori: 'Water freezes at 0°C' (learned from observa |
| 5 | **Empirical** | Based on observation or experiment rather than theory or pure logic | Appears frequently in science and social science passages. Empirical evidence = data/experimental results. | Distinguished from theoretical or conceptual claims. The LSAT loves the 'empirical evidence vs theoretical argument' ten |
| 6 | **Normative** | Relating to how things SHOULD be (values, judgments) vs descriptive (how things ARE) | Critical distinction in RC. Normative claim: 'We ought to reduce pollution.' Descriptive: 'Pollution has decreased 10%.' | One of the most important distinctions for RC. The LSAT will ask you to identify whether a claim is normative or descrip |
| 7 | **Concession** | Acknowledging an opposing point before arguing against it | 'While it's true that X, nevertheless Y.' Shows fairness and nuance. Strengthens the author's credibility. | RC authors frequently concede a point in the third paragraph before arguing their own position. Look for 'While,' 'Altho |
| 8 | **Paradigm** | A framework of understanding; a model or pattern | Common in science and social science passages. A paradigm shift = fundamental change in how a field understands somethin | Kuhn's 'paradigm shift' concept appears frequently. When a paradigm changes, the entire field's assumptions shift. |
| 9 | **Corroborate** | To confirm or support with additional evidence | 'This study corroborates earlier findings.' Corroborating evidence strengthens a claim. | Distinguish from 'contradict' (opposes) and 'complement' (adds to without confirming). Corroboration specifically means  |
| 10 | **Posit** | To put forward as a fact or hypothesis; to assume as the basis of an argument | 'The author posits that economic growth drives innovation.' Positing is proposing without necessarily proving. | A positive statement is a claim — it may or may not be supported. The author's 'posit' is their starting assumption. |
| 11 | **Cogent / Cogency** | Clear, logical, and convincing — a cogent argument is well-reasoned and persuasive | Used in answer choices: 'the argument is cogent because...' Cogency = sound reasoning + persuasive force. | A cogent argument is not just valid — it's compelling. It has both logical structure and persuasive power. |
| 12 | **Fallacious** | Containing a logical error; based on flawed reasoning | 'The argument is fallacious because it confuses correlation with causation.' | Know the common fallacy types. The LSAT tests your ability to identify WHICH fallacy is present, not just that one exist |
| 13 | **Stipulate** | To specify or agree upon as a condition; in LSAT context, the stimulus 'stipulates' certain facts | What the stimulus says is TRUE for purposes of the question. Never dispute stipulated facts. | The LSAT stipulates facts in the stimulus. You accept them as given, even if they seem unrealistic. Your job is to reaso |
| 14 | **Equivocal / Unequivocal** | Equivocal: ambiguous, open to interpretation. Unequivocal: clear, unambiguous, leaving no doubt. | Important distinction in RC. An 'unequivocal statement' cannot be misinterpreted. | Authors may characterize evidence as 'equivocal' (doesn't clearly prove one side) — this often signals the need for more |
| 15 | **Deterministic** | The idea that all events are determined by prior causes — free will doesn't exist in a fully deterministic universe | Appears in philosophy/hard science passages about causation, free will, and predictability. | Contrast with 'probabilistic' (events have probabilities, not certainties). The LSAT rarely takes a position, but unders |

### ✏️ Exercise A: Fill in the Blank
1. **Prima Facie**: At first sight; based on first impression __________ sufficient to establish a fact unless disproved
2. **Amicus Curiae**: 'Friend of the court' — a person/organization not __________ party to the case who offers information
3. **Stare Decisis**: 'To stand by things decided' __________ the doctrine of precedent
4. **A Priori / A Posteriori**: A priori: knowledge independent of experience (logical __________ A posteriori: knowledge from experience (empirical).
5. **Empirical**: Based on observation or experiment __________ than theory or pure logic
6. **Normative**: Relating to how things SHOULD be __________ judgments) vs descriptive (how things ARE)
7. **Concession**: Acknowledging an opposing point __________ arguing against it
8. **Paradigm**: A framework of understanding; __________ model or pattern
9. **Corroborate**: To confirm or __________ with additional evidence
10. **Posit**: To put forward as a fact or hypothesis; __________ assume as the basis of an argument

### 🔗 Exercise B: Matching
| Term | Letter |
|------|--------|
| **Prima Facie** | ___ |
| **Amicus Curiae** | ___ |
| **Stare Decisis** | ___ |
| **A Priori / A Posteriori** | ___ |
| **Empirical** | ___ |
| **Normative** | ___ |
| **Concession** | ___ |
| **Paradigm** | ___ |
| **Corroborate** | ___ |
| **Posit** | ___ |

| Letter | Definition |
|--------|------------|
| A | At first sight; based on first impression — sufficient to establish a fact unless disproved |
| B | A priori: knowledge independent of experience (logical deduction). A posteriori: knowledge from expe |
| C | Relating to how things SHOULD be (values, judgments) vs descriptive (how things ARE) |
| D | 'To stand by things decided' — the doctrine of precedent |
| E | A framework of understanding; a model or pattern |
| F | To put forward as a fact or hypothesis; to assume as the basis of an argument |
| G | 'Friend of the court' — a person/organization not a party to the case who offers information |
| H | Acknowledging an opposing point before arguing against it |
| I | To confirm or support with additional evidence |
| J | Based on observation or experiment rather than theory or pure logic |

### 📝 Exercise C: LSAT-Style Questions
**1.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Prima Facie**?
   A) At first sight; based on first impression — sufficient to establish a fact unless disproved
   B) To confirm or support with additional evidence
   C) 'The author posits that economic growth drives innovation.' Positing is proposing without necessaril
   D) To confirm or support with additional evidence

**2.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Amicus Curiae**?
   A) 'Friend of the court' — a person/organization not a party to the case who offers information
   B) 'To stand by things decided' — the doctrine of precedent
   C) Appears frequently in science and social science passages. Empirical evidence = data/experimental re
   D) Based on observation or experiment rather than theory or pure logic

**3.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Stare Decisis**?
   A) 'To stand by things decided' — the doctrine of precedent
   B) 'Friend of the court' — a person/organization not a party to the case who offers information
   C) 'While it's true that X, nevertheless Y.' Shows fairness and nuance. Strengthens the author's credib
   D) At first sight; based on first impression — sufficient to establish a fact unless disproved

**4.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **A Priori / A Posteriori**?
   A) A priori: knowledge independent of experience (logical deduction). A posteriori: knowledge from expe
   B) Clear, logical, and convincing — a cogent argument is well-reasoned and persuasive
   C) 'The author posits that economic growth drives innovation.' Positing is proposing without necessaril
   D) Based on observation or experiment rather than theory or pure logic

**5.** Which of the following best describes the concept of **Empirical**?
   A) Based on observation or experiment rather than theory or pure logic
   B) Clear, logical, and convincing — a cogent argument is well-reasoned and persuasive
   C) Key terms in philosophy/theory passages. Distinguishes between reasoning from principles vs reasonin
   D) At first sight; based on first impression — sufficient to establish a fact unless disproved

---

## 📋 Answer Keys

### Section 1: Logical Reasoning
**Exercise A:**
1. **Argument**: A set of statements where one (the conclusion) is claimed to follow from others (the premises)
2. **Premise**: A statement offered as support for the conclusion
3. **Conclusion**: The main point the arguer is trying to prove
4. **Assumption**: An unstated premise necessary for the conclusion to follow from the premises
5. **Necessary Assumption**: A statement that MUST be true for the argument to hold — without it, the argument fails
6. **Sufficient Assumption**: A statement that, if true, guarantees the conclusion follows — it 'fills the gap' completely
7. **Strengthen**: Make the argument more likely to be true — supports the conclusion
8. **Weaken**: Make the argument less likely to be true — undermines the conclusion
9. **Flaw**: A logical error in reasoning that makes the argument invalid or weak
10. **Parallel Reasoning**: Identify the answer choice that uses the same logical structure as the stimulus

**Exercise C:** All correct answers are A.
---

### Section 2: Logic Games / Analytical Reasoning
**Exercise A:**
1. **Sequencing Game**: Order elements along a linear dimension — time, rank, position, days
2. **Grouping Game**: Sort elements into categories or teams — in/out, selection, assignment
3. **Hybrid Game**: Combines sequencing + grouping — sort AND order simultaneously
4. **Diagramming**: Visual representation of a game's rules and constraints
5. **Deduction / Inference**: A conclusion that MUST be true based on the given rules
6. **Rule**: A constraint that limits the possible arrangements
7. **Contrapositive (in Games)**: Turn 'If A, then B' into 'If not B, then not A'
8. **Not-Both Rule**: A and B cannot both be selected/together
9. **Either/Or Rule**: At least one of A or B must be selected/included
10. **Blocks**: Two or more elements that must appear together or in a specific relationship

**Exercise C:** All correct answers are A.
---

### Section 3: Reading Comprehension
**Exercise A:**
1. **Passage Mapping**: Creating a structural outline of the passage — not just reading it
2. **Main Point / Primary Purpose**: The central thesis of the passage — what the author most wants you to believe
3. **Author's Attitude / Tone**: The author's stance toward the subject — critical, supportive, neutral, skeptical, admiring
4. **Inference (RC)**: A conclusion not explicitly stated but logically following from the passage
5. **Detail / Retrieval**: Finding specific information explicitly stated in the passage
6. **Function / Purpose of a Paragraph**: What role does this paragraph play in the overall argument?
7. **Comparative Reading**: Two passages on the same topic — compare their approaches, agreement, and disagreement
8. **View/Opinion Identification**: Whose perspective is being presented — author vs critic vs scholar vs general belief
9. **Analogy / Application**: Applying passage concepts to a new situation not discussed in the text
10. **Strengthen/Weaken (RC)**: Which new information would strengthen or weaken the author's argument?

**Exercise C:** All correct answers are A.
---

### Section 4: LSAT Test Strategy
**Exercise A:**
1. **Process of Elimination (POE)**: Eliminate wrong answers systematically rather than hunting for the right one
2. **Timing per Section**: LR: 35 min / 25-26 Q's = ~1:24/Q. LG: 35 min / 4 games = ~8:45/game. RC: 35 min / 4 passages = ~8:45/passage.
3. **Skip Strategy**: If you read a stimulus twice and can't identify the argument — SKIP. Mark it and return.
4. **Guessing Strategy**: The LSAT has NO penalty for wrong answers. NEVER leave a bubble empty.
5. **Experimental Section**: One of the four scored sections is unscored — you won't know which one
6. **LR Question Order**: Questions 1-10: easier. Questions 11-20: medium. Questions 21-25/26: harder.
7. **Answer Choice Traps**: Half-right/half-wrong, extreme language, out of scope, 180/reversal of logic
8. **Two-Pass Method**: First pass: answer everything you can confidently. Second pass: return to skipped/difficult questions.
9. **Stamina & Endurance**: The LSAT is ~3 hours + writing. Build mental endurance through full-length practice tests.
10. **Wrong Answer Journal**: Track every question you get wrong: what was your error, what should you have done?

**Exercise C:** All correct answers are A.
---

### Section 5: Formal Logic & Conditional Reasoning
**Exercise A:**
1. **If/Then Statement**: 'If P, then Q' — a conditional statement where P is sufficient for Q
2. **Only If**: 'P only if Q' means 'If P, then Q' — Q is necessary for P
3. **Unless**: 'Unless P, Q' = 'If not P, then Q' or equivalently 'Q unless P' = 'If not P, then Q'
4. **Without**: 'Without P, Q cannot happen' = 'If Q, then P' — P is necessary for Q
5. **Biconditional**: 'If and only if' — P ↔ Q. P and Q are both sufficient AND necessary for each other.
6. **Transitive Property**: If P→Q and Q→R, then P→R. Chain conditionals together.
7. **Denying the Consequent**: Valid inference: if P→Q and NOT Q, then NOT P
8. **Affirming the Antecedent**: Valid inference: if P→Q and P, then Q (Modus Ponens)
9. **Affirming the Consequent (FALLACY)**: Invalid: P→Q and Q is true, therefore P is true. Q can happen without P.
10. **Denying the Antecedent (FALLACY)**: Invalid: P→Q and P is false, therefore Q is false. Q may still be true without P.

**Exercise C:** All correct answers are A.
---

### Section 6: Common Flaw Types
**Exercise A:**
1. **Causation Flaw**: Assuming correlation (X and Y occur together) implies causation (X causes Y)
2. **Overgeneralization / Sampling Flaw**: Drawing a general conclusion from an unrepresentative or too-small sample
3. **False Dichotomy / False Dilemma**: Presenting two alternatives as if they are the only possibilities when others exist
4. **Ad Hominem**: Attacking the person making the argument instead of the argument itself
5. **Appeal to Authority**: Citing an unqualified authority as evidence
6. **Circular Reasoning**: The conclusion restates a premise or presupposes the conclusion
7. **Equivocation**: Using a word in two different senses within the same argument
8. **Straw Man**: Misrepresenting an opponent's argument to make it easier to attack
9. **Composition / Division**: Composition: assuming what's true of parts is true of the whole. Division: assuming what's true of the whole is true of parts.
10. **Appeal to Emotion**: Using emotional manipulation rather than logical reasoning

**Exercise C:** All correct answers are A.
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### Section 7: Question Type Mastery
**Exercise A:**
1. **Must Be True / Most Strongly Supported**: Find the answer choice that must be true or is most strongly supported by the stimulus
2. **Main Point / Main Conclusion**: Identify the primary conclusion the author is trying to prove
3. **Assumption (Necessary)**: Find the statement that the argument REQUIRES to be true — without it, the argument fails
4. **Sufficient Assumption / Justify**: Find the statement that, if true, GUARANTEES the conclusion follows
5. **Strengthen**: Find the answer that makes the argument MORE likely to be correct
6. **Weaken**: Find the answer that makes the argument LESS likely to be correct
7. **Flaw**: Describe the logical error in the argument's reasoning
8. **Parallel Reasoning / Parallel Flaw**: Match the logical structure of the stimulus to an answer choice
9. **Method of Reasoning / Method of Argument**: Describe the technique the author uses to make their argument
10. **Role / Function**: Identify the role a specific statement plays in the argument

**Exercise C:** All correct answers are A.
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### Section 8: LSAT Vocabulary & Key Terms
**Exercise A:**
1. **Prima Facie**: At first sight; based on first impression — sufficient to establish a fact unless disproved
2. **Amicus Curiae**: 'Friend of the court' — a person/organization not a party to the case who offers information
3. **Stare Decisis**: 'To stand by things decided' — the doctrine of precedent
4. **A Priori / A Posteriori**: A priori: knowledge independent of experience (logical deduction). A posteriori: knowledge from experience (empirical).
5. **Empirical**: Based on observation or experiment rather than theory or pure logic
6. **Normative**: Relating to how things SHOULD be (values, judgments) vs descriptive (how things ARE)
7. **Concession**: Acknowledging an opposing point before arguing against it
8. **Paradigm**: A framework of understanding; a model or pattern
9. **Corroborate**: To confirm or support with additional evidence
10. **Posit**: To put forward as a fact or hypothesis; to assume as the basis of an argument

**Exercise C:** All correct answers are A.
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## 🎯 BONUS: LSAT Cram Sheet (40 Most-Tested Concepts)

| **Argument Structure** | Conclusion + Premises. Find conclusion FIRST. |
| **Necessary vs Sufficient** | Necessary=required. Sufficient=guarantees. |
| **Contrapositive** | If P→Q, then ~Q→~P. Always valid. |
| **Causation vs Correlation** | Together ≠ caused. Look for alternative explanations. |
| **Ad Hominem** | Attacking the person, not the argument. |
| **False Dichotomy** | Only 2 options? There's usually a third. |
| **Straw Man** | Misrepresenting to attack more easily. |
| **Equivocation** | Same word, different meaning. |
| **Overgeneralization** | Small/biased sample → big claim. |
| **Percent vs Amount** | 50% of 2 ≠ 50% of 2 million. |
| **Negation Test** | Negate the answer — if argument falls, it's necessary. |
| **Diagramming (LG)** | Sketch rules, deduce, answer questions. |
| **Blocks (LG)** | Fixed groups take consecutive slots. |
| **Not-Both vs Either/Or** | Not-both: ≤1. Either/or: ≥1. |
| **POE** | Eliminate wrong answers. 4 wrong > 1 right. |
| **Skip Strategy** | Can't find argument in 2 reads? Flag and return. |
| **Timing** | LR: 1:24/Q. LG/RC: 8:45/passage or game. |
| **Passage Mapping** | P1 function, P2 function, etc. Main argument. |
| **Author's Attitude** | Word choice reveals tone. Moderate > extreme. |
| **Prephrase** | Predict before reading answer choices. |
| **Trap Answers** | Half-right, extreme, out of scope, 180 reversal. |
| **If/Then** | Sufficient → Necessary. P→Q. |
| **Unless** | Means 'if not.' Negate the unless part. |
| **Denying Consequent** | Valid: P→Q, ~Q ⊢ ~P. |
| **Affirming Consequent (FLAW)** | Invalid: P→Q, Q ⊢ P. |
| **Quantifiers** | Some≥1, most>half, all=100%. Direction matters. |
| **Transitive Chain** | P→Q, Q→R ⊢ P→R. |
| **Representative Sample** | Random, large enough, unbiased selection. |
| **Circular Reasoning** | Conclusion = premise in different words. |
| **Slippery Slope** | No evidence each step follows. |
| **Role/Function** | What JOB does the statement do? |
| **Parallel Reasoning** | Match structure, not topic. |
| **Strengthen/Weaken** | Move probability toward or away from conclusion. |
| **Paradox** | Explain BOTH seemingly conflicting facts. |
| **Templates (LG)** | Build scenarios only if a rule splits ~2-3 ways. |
| **Experimental Section** | One section unscored. Treat ALL as scored. |
| **Stare Decisis** | Precedent in legal reasoning. RC law passages. |
| **Normative vs Descriptive** | Should vs Is. Critical RC distinction. |
| **Concession** | 'Although X, Y.' Author acknowledges counterpoint. |
| **Empirical** | Based on data/observation. RC science passages. |

## 🧩 BONUS: Logic Game Diagramming Cheat Sheet

| **Sequencing** | 1 __ 2 __ 3 __ 4 __ 5 __ | A < B (A before B). A _ B (adjacent). Rules on top. |
| **Grouping** | IN: { }  OUT: { } | A → ~B (not both). ~A → B (either/or). Count distribution. |
| **Conditional** | A → B = If A then B | Write contrapositive: ~B → ~A next to it. |
| **Blocks** | [AB] = fixed consecutive | [A_B] = separated by exactly one. Draw as linked. |
| **Deductions** | Combine rules: A<B and B<C → A<C | Mark forced positions. Float = no constraints. |
| **Symbols** | < = before, > = after, ~ = not, → = if/then | Be consistent. Speed depends on automatic recognition. |

## 🔍 BONUS: Common Flaw Quick Reference

| **Causation** | Correlation ≠ causation | Alternative cause, reverse, third factor, coincidence |
| **Sampling** | Unrepresentative sample | Too small, self-selected, biased recruitment |
| **False Dichotomy** | Only 2 options presented | What's the excluded middle ground? |
| **Ad Hominem** | Attacks arguer, not argument | Character ≠ truth of claim |
| **Equivocation** | Term shifts meaning | Track key terms across argument |
| **Straw Man** | Misrepresents opponent | What did they actually say? |
| **Circular** | Conclusion = premise | Says same thing twice |
| **Percent/Amount** | Confuses % and # | What's the base number? |
| **Overgeneralization** | Part → whole or few → all | Is the sample representative? |
| **Time Shift** | Past predicts future | What evidence of continuity exists? |

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