# MCAT Study Guide
## 185+ High-Yield Concepts for the Medical College Admission Test

**Price:** $39 | **Format:** Markdown + PDF Workbook  
**Category:** Pre-Med / MCAT Exam Prep  
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> **📋 How to Use This Guide:** The MCAT tests both knowledge and reasoning. Each section contains high-yield concept tables (definition + MCAT significance + test-day tip), followed by active-recall exercises, passage-based questions, and MCAT-style multiple choice. Answer keys with full explanations at the back. Bonus materials (Equation Sheet, Amino Acid Quick Reference, and Pathways Map) are designed for last-week drilling.

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## 🔬 Section 1: Biochemistry (28 Terms)

| # | Term | Definition | MCAT Significance | Test-Day Tip |
|---|------|------------|-------------------|--------------|
| 1 | **Amino Acid Structure** | Central carbon (Cα) with: amino group (-NH2), carboxyl group (-COOH), hydrogen, and variable R group | 20 standard amino acids. Know: hydrophobic vs hydrophilic, charged (+/-), special cases (Gly, Pro, Cys). | Every AA has a 3-letter and 1-letter abbreviation. Cysteine forms disulfide bonds. Proline is a helix breaker. |
| 2 | **Essential Amino Acids** | Cannot be synthesized by the body — must be obtained from diet: PVT TIM HALL | Phe, Val, Thr, Trp, Ile, Met, His, Arg, Leu, Lys. | Memorize the mnemonic. MCAT loves 'which of these is essential?' — especially His and Arg (conditionally essential). |
| 3 | **Peptide Bond** | Amide linkage between carboxyl group of one AA and amino group of another — dehydration/condensation reaction | Forms the protein backbone. Partial double-bond character (resonance) = rigid and planar. | Know: peptide bond formation removes H2O. The C-N bond has restricted rotation (planar). Protein synthesis is N→C termin |
| 4 | **Protein Structure Levels** | Primary (sequence), Secondary (α-helix, β-sheet), Tertiary (3D folding), Quaternary (multi-subunit) | Stabilized by: primary=covalent, secondary=H-bonds, tertiary=hydrophobic/ionic/disulfide/VdW, quaternary=same as tertiar | α-helix: H-bonds every 4 residues. β-sheet: H-bonds between strands (parallel or antiparallel). Proline disrupts α-helic |
| 5 | **Michaelis-Menten Kinetics** | V = Vmax[S]/(Km + [S]). Describes enzyme kinetics at steady state. | Km: substrate concentration at ½Vmax. Lower Km = higher affinity. Vmax: maximum rate when enzyme is saturated. | Km is a dissociation constant (approximates affinity). Know the Lineweaver-Burk plot (1/V vs 1/[S]). |
| 6 | **Enzyme Inhibitors** | Competitive: binds active site, ↑Km, Vmax unchanged. Noncompetitive: binds allosteric, Km unchanged, ↓Vmax. Uncompetitiv | Know the effects on Km and Vmax for each type. Lineweaver-Burk plots: competitive = same y-intercept, noncomp = same x-i | Competitive inhibitors can be overcome by increasing [S]. Think: compete=Km change, noncomp=Vmax change. |
| 7 | **Hemoglobin** | Tetrameric O2-carrier: 2 α and 2 β subunits. Cooperative binding (sigmoidal curve). | Cooperative binding: binding of O2 to one subunit increases affinity of others (T→R state transition). | Bohr effect: ↓pH (↑CO2) → ↓O2 affinity → O2 released to tissues. 2,3-BPG stabilizes T-state. Fetal Hb (HbF) has higher O |
| 8 | **Myoglobin** | Monomeric O2 storage in muscle. Hyperbolic curve (non-cooperative). | Higher O2 affinity than hemoglobin — extracts O2 from blood. | Heme group: Fe2+ in porphyrin ring. One O2 binding site (vs 4 for Hb). O2 dissociation curve is hyperbolic, not sigmoida |
| 9 | **Glycolysis** | Glucose → 2 Pyruvate. Net: 2 ATP, 2 NADH. 10 steps in cytoplasm. | The universal pathway for glucose breakdown. Does NOT require O2. | Key regulated steps: hexokinase (step 1), PFK-1 (step 3 — rate-limiting), pyruvate kinase (step 10). Investment phase (s |
| 10 | **Krebs Cycle (TCA / Citric Acid Cycle)** | Acetyl-CoA → 2 CO2. Net per turn: 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 GTP. Matrix of mitochondria. | Acetyl-CoA (2C) + Oxaloacetate (4C) → Citrate (6C). Cycle regenerates oxaloacetate. | Key intermediates: citrate, isocitrate, α-ketoglutarate, succinyl-CoA, succinate, fumarate, malate, oxaloacetate. Know t |
| 11 | **Electron Transport Chain (ETC)** | Inner mitochondrial membrane. NADH/FADH2 donate electrons → Complex I-IV → O2 → H2O. Proton gradient drives ATP synthase | Complex I (NADH deh), II (succinate deh), III (cytochrome bc1), IV (cytochrome c oxidase). ATP synthase (Complex V). | NADH → ~2.5 ATP, FADH2 → ~1.5 ATP (enters at Complex II). O2 is final electron acceptor. Rotenone blocks CI, cyanide blo |
| 12 | **Gluconeogenesis** | Synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors (lactate, glycerol, amino acids). Mostly in liver. | Essentially the reverse of glycolysis, with bypass steps at irreversible reactions (pyruvate carboxylase, PEPCK, FBPase- | Occurs during fasting. Bypass reactions are the key difference from glycolysis. Know which enzymes are unique to each pa |
| 13 | **Fatty Acid Oxidation (β-Oxidation)** | Breakdown of fatty acids to acetyl-CoA in mitochondrial matrix | Each cycle: 1 FADH2, 1 NADH, 1 Acetyl-CoA, releases 2C. | Carnitine shuttle transports FA into mitochondria. Odd-chain FA → propionyl-CoA → succinyl-CoA (gluconeogenic). MCAT lov |
| 14 | **Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP)** | Produces NADPH (for biosynthesis) and ribose-5-phosphate (for nucleotides). | Oxidative phase (irreversible): G6P → ribulose-5-P + 2 NADPH. Non-oxidative (reversible): interconverts sugars. | Active in: liver, adipose (NADPH for FA synthesis), RBCs (NADPH protects against oxidative stress via glutathione). G6PD |
| 15 | **ATP Structure & Energy** | Adenosine triphosphate — high-energy phosphate bonds. Hydrolysis: ATP → ADP + Pi (ΔG°' = -30.5 kJ/mol). | ATP is the energy currency. Phosphoanhydride bonds (between phosphates) are 'high energy.' | Know: ATP ↔ ADP + Pi. GTP = ATP equivalent in some reactions. Coupling: endergonic reactions driven by ATP hydrolysis. |
| 16 | **Enzyme Catalysis** | Lower activation energy (Ea). Do NOT change ΔG. Stabilize transition state. | Enzymes are catalysts — they speed up reactions without being consumed. Affect kinetics, not thermodynamics. | Acid-base, covalent, metal-ion, and proximity/orientation catalysis. Active site is complementary to transition state (n |
| 17 | **Cofactors & Coenzymes** | Cofactor: non-protein helper (metal ions: Fe2+, Mg2+, Zn2+). Coenzyme: organic cofactor (NAD+, FAD, CoA, vitamins). | Many are derived from vitamins. NAD+/NADH = niacin (B3). FAD/FADH2 = riboflavin (B2). CoA = pantothenic acid (B5). | Know which vitamins are precursors to which coenzymes. This is classic MCAT biochemistry. |
| 18 | **Allosteric Regulation** | Regulation by binding at site OTHER than active site. Changes enzyme conformation. | Homotropic: substrate is also allosteric regulator (hemoglobin/O2). Heterotropic: different molecule regulates. | Allosteric enzymes show sigmoidal kinetics (cooperativity). Often at key regulatory points in pathways (PFK-1, ATCase). |
| 19 | **Zymogens/Proenzymes** | Inactive enzyme precursors — activated by proteolytic cleavage. | Examples: pepsinogen→pepsin, trypsinogen→trypsin, chymotrypsinogen→chymotrypsin, prothrombin→thrombin. | This prevents self-digestion. Activation is irreversible. Enteropeptidase initiates pancreatic zymogen cascade. |
| 20 | **Glycogen Metabolism** | Synthesis: glycogen synthase. Degradation: glycogen phosphorylase. Regulated by insulin/glucagon/epinephrine. | Glycogen = glucose storage polymer (α-1,4 + α-1,6 branches). Liver maintains blood glucose; muscle fuels itself. | Glycogen phosphorylase cleaves α-1,4 bonds (releases G1P). Debranching enzyme handles α-1,6. Muscle lacks G6Pase (can't  |
| 21 | **Oxidative Phosphorylation** | ATP synthesis coupled to ETC proton gradient (chemiosmotic coupling). | Protons pumped out at CI, CIII, CIV. Flow back through ATP synthase drives ADP + Pi → ATP. | Uncouplers (DNP): dissipate proton gradient → no ATP made, energy lost as heat. Thermodynamic coupling: ΔG of ETC drives |
| 22 | **Km & Vmax** | Km: [S] at ½Vmax (affinity measure). Vmax: maximal rate (saturated). | Low Km = high affinity. Vmax proportional to [E]. | Know the Michaelis-Menten equation: V0 = Vmax[S]/(Km+[S]). When [S]<<Km → first order. When [S]>>Km → zero order. |
| 23 | **Acid-Base Chemistry of AAs** | At low pH: amino acids protonated (+ charge). At high pH: deprotonated (- charge). At pI: zwitterion (neutral overall). | pKa of COOH ~2, pKa of NH3+ ~9-10. pKa of side chain varies. | pI = (pKa1 + pKa2)/2 for neutral AAs. Include side chain pKa for acidic/basic AAs. Know titration curve shapes. |
| 24 | **Isoelectric Focusing** | Separation of proteins by pI in a pH gradient. Proteins migrate until pH = pI (no net charge). | Used in 2D gel electrophoresis. First dimension: IEF separates by pI. Second: SDS-PAGE separates by MW. | A protein stops migrating when it reaches its pI. Cathode (-) is basic, anode (+) is acidic. |
| 25 | **SDS-PAGE** | SDS denatures proteins + coats with negative charge. Separation by molecular weight ONLY. | Smaller proteins migrate faster through gel. Mercaptoethanol reduces disulfide bonds. | SDS swamps the protein's native charge — all proteins migrate toward anode (+). Migration distance ∝ log(MW). |
| 26 | **Chaperones** | Proteins that assist folding of other proteins. Prevent aggregation. | Hsp60 (GroEL/GroES): folding chamber. Hsp70: binds exposed hydrophobic patches. | Misfolded proteins → disease (Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, prion diseases). Heat shock induces chaperone expression. |
| 27 | **Metabolism Integration** | Fed state: insulin → glycolysis, FA synthesis, glycogen synthesis. Fasted: glucagon → gluconeogenesis, β-oxidation, glyc | Know the hormone signals and tissue-specific metabolism. Liver, muscle, adipose, brain all respond differently. | Brain uses glucose (or ketones in prolonged fasting). RBCs ONLY use glucose (no mitochondria). Liver is metabolic hub. |
| 28 | **DNA Replication Enzymes** | Helicase (unwinds), SSB (stabilizes ssDNA), Topoisomerase (relieves supercoils), Primase (RNA primer), DNA Pol III (synt | E. coli model. Know each enzyme's function and order of action. | DNA Pol III synthesizes 5'→3' (leading continuous, lagging = Okazaki fragments). Proofreading: 3'→5' exonuclease activit |

### ✏️ Exercise A: Fill in the Blank
1. **Amino Acid Structure**: Central carbon (Cα) with: amino group (-NH2), __________ group (-COOH), hydrogen, and variable R group
2. **Essential Amino Acids**: Cannot be synthesized by the body — __________ be obtained from diet: PVT TIM HALL
3. **Peptide Bond**: Amide linkage between carboxyl group of one AA __________ amino group of another — dehydration/condensation reaction
4. **Protein Structure Levels**: Primary (sequence), Secondary (α-helix, β-sheet), __________ (3D folding), Quaternary (multi-subunit)
5. **Michaelis-Menten Kinetics**: V = Vmax[S]/(Km + [S]). __________ enzyme kinetics at steady state.
6. **Enzyme Inhibitors**: Competitive: binds active site, ↑Km, Vmax unchanged. Noncompetitive: binds __________ Km unchanged, ↓Vmax. Uncompetitive: binds ES complex, ↓Km, ↓Vmax.
7. **Hemoglobin**: Tetrameric O2-carrier: 2 α and 2 __________ subunits. Cooperative binding (sigmoidal curve).
8. **Myoglobin**: Monomeric O2 storage in __________ Hyperbolic curve (non-cooperative).
9. **Glycolysis**: Glucose → 2 Pyruvate. Net: 2 __________ 2 NADH. 10 steps in cytoplasm.
10. **Krebs Cycle (TCA / Citric Acid Cycle)**: Acetyl-CoA → 2 CO2. Net per turn: 3 __________ 1 FADH2, 1 GTP. Matrix of mitochondria.

### 🔗 Exercise B: Matching
| Term | Letter |
|------|--------|
| **Amino Acid Structure** | ___ |
| **Essential Amino Acids** | ___ |
| **Peptide Bond** | ___ |
| **Protein Structure Levels** | ___ |
| **Michaelis-Menten Kinetics** | ___ |
| **Enzyme Inhibitors** | ___ |
| **Hemoglobin** | ___ |
| **Myoglobin** | ___ |
| **Glycolysis** | ___ |
| **Krebs Cycle (TCA / Citric Acid Cycle)** | ___ |

| Letter | Definition |
|--------|------------|
| A | Monomeric O2 storage in muscle. Hyperbolic curve (non-cooperative). |
| B | Primary (sequence), Secondary (α-helix, β-sheet), Tertiary (3D folding), Quaternary (multi-subunit) |
| C | Amide linkage between carboxyl group of one AA and amino group of another — dehydration/condensation |
| D | Glucose → 2 Pyruvate. Net: 2 ATP, 2 NADH. 10 steps in cytoplasm. |
| E | Competitive: binds active site, ↑Km, Vmax unchanged. Noncompetitive: binds allosteric, Km unchanged, |
| F | Tetrameric O2-carrier: 2 α and 2 β subunits. Cooperative binding (sigmoidal curve). |
| G | Acetyl-CoA → 2 CO2. Net per turn: 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 GTP. Matrix of mitochondria. |
| H | V = Vmax[S]/(Km + [S]). Describes enzyme kinetics at steady state. |
| I | Central carbon (Cα) with: amino group (-NH2), carboxyl group (-COOH), hydrogen, and variable R group |
| J | Cannot be synthesized by the body — must be obtained from diet: PVT TIM HALL |

### 📝 Exercise C: MCAT-Style Questions
**1.** Which statement best describes **Amino Acid Structure**?
   A) Central carbon (Cα) with: amino group (-NH2), carboxyl group (-COOH), hydrogen, and variable R group
   B) Synthesis: glycogen synthase. Degradation: glycogen phosphorylase. Regulated by insulin/glucagon/epi
   C) ATP is the energy currency. Phosphoanhydride bonds (between phosphates) are 'high energy.'
   D) Amide linkage between carboxyl group of one AA and amino group of another — dehydration/condensation

**2.** Which statement best describes **Essential Amino Acids**?
   A) Cannot be synthesized by the body — must be obtained from diet: PVT TIM HALL
   B) Central carbon (Cα) with: amino group (-NH2), carboxyl group (-COOH), hydrogen, and variable R group
   C) Stabilized by: primary=covalent, secondary=H-bonds, tertiary=hydrophobic/ionic/disulfide/VdW, quater
   D) Monomeric O2 storage in muscle. Hyperbolic curve (non-cooperative).

**3.** Which statement best describes **Peptide Bond**?
   A) Amide linkage between carboxyl group of one AA and amino group of another — dehydration/condensation
   B) Glucose → 2 Pyruvate. Net: 2 ATP, 2 NADH. 10 steps in cytoplasm.
   C) Homotropic: substrate is also allosteric regulator (hemoglobin/O2). Heterotropic: different molecule
   D) ATP synthesis coupled to ETC proton gradient (chemiosmotic coupling).

**4.** Which statement best describes **Protein Structure Levels**?
   A) Primary (sequence), Secondary (α-helix, β-sheet), Tertiary (3D folding), Quaternary (multi-subunit)
   B) Central carbon (Cα) with: amino group (-NH2), carboxyl group (-COOH), hydrogen, and variable R group
   C) Examples: pepsinogen→pepsin, trypsinogen→trypsin, chymotrypsinogen→chymotrypsin, prothrombin→thrombi
   D) Monomeric O2 storage in muscle. Hyperbolic curve (non-cooperative).

**5.** Which statement best describes **Michaelis-Menten Kinetics**?
   A) V = Vmax[S]/(Km + [S]). Describes enzyme kinetics at steady state.
   B) Separation of proteins by pI in a pH gradient. Proteins migrate until pH = pI (no net charge).
   C) Low Km = high affinity. Vmax proportional to [E].
   D) Separation of proteins by pI in a pH gradient. Proteins migrate until pH = pI (no net charge).

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## 🔬 Section 2: Biology & Genetics (28 Terms)

| # | Term | Definition | MCAT Significance | Test-Day Tip |
|---|------|------------|-------------------|--------------|
| 1 | **Central Dogma** | DNA → RNA → Protein. Replication (DNA→DNA), Transcription (DNA→RNA), Translation (RNA→Protein). | Information flow in cells. Exceptions: reverse transcriptase (RNA→DNA in retroviruses), RNA viruses. | Prokaryotes: transcription and translation coupled. Eukaryotes: transcription in nucleus, translation in cytoplasm. |
| 2 | **Transcription** | RNA Polymerase synthesizes mRNA from DNA template (5'→3'). Promoter (TATA box) signals start. | Initiation: RNA Pol binds promoter. Elongation: reads template 3'→5', builds mRNA 5'→3'. Termination: terminator sequenc | Eukaryotes: RNA Pol I (rRNA), II (mRNA), III (tRNA). Know the promoter elements and transcription factors. |
| 3 | **Translation** | Ribosome reads mRNA codons → tRNA brings amino acids → protein chain synthesized N→C | Initiation (AUG/start), elongation (A site, P site, E site), termination (stop codon + release factor). | Codons are 3 bases. Genetic code is degenerate (multiple codons per AA). Wobble: 3rd base can mismatch (inosine in tRNA) |
| 4 | **Mitosis** | Somatic cell division: 1 diploid → 2 identical diploid cells. PMAT: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase. | Growth, repair, asexual reproduction. | Prophase: chromosomes condense, spindle forms. Metaphase: chromosomes align at plate. Anaphase: sister chromatids separa |
| 5 | **Meiosis** | Germ cell division: 1 diploid → 4 haploid gametes. Two divisions (Meiosis I: homologous separate, Meiosis II: sister chr | Crossing over in Prophase I = genetic diversity. Independent assortment in Metaphase I. | Meiosis I is reductional (2n→n). Meiosis II is equational (n→n). Nondisjunction = chromosomes fail to separate → aneuplo |
| 6 | **Mendelian Genetics** | Law of Segregation (alleles separate in meiosis). Law of Independent Assortment (different genes sort independently). | Dominant/recessive inheritance patterns. Punnett squares for predicting offspring ratios. | Monohybrid cross (Aa×Aa): 3:1 phenotype. Dihybrid (AaBb×AaBb): 9:3:3:1. Know autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, X- |
| 7 | **Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium** | p² + 2pq + q² = 1, p + q = 1. Allele/genotype frequencies in non-evolving population. | Assumptions: no mutation, random mating, no gene flow, large population, no natural selection. | p = dominant allele frequency, q = recessive. 2pq = heterozygote frequency. X-linked: males have only one allele. |
| 8 | **Natural Selection** | Differential survival/reproduction of organisms with advantageous traits. | Stabilizing: favors intermediate. Directional: favors one extreme. Disruptive: favors both extremes, against intermediat | Fitness = reproductive success. Adaptation = trait that increases fitness. Populations evolve, not individuals. |
| 9 | **Cell Cycle** | G1 → S (DNA synthesis) → G2 → M (mitosis). G0 = quiescent. | Cyclins + CDKs regulate checkpoints. G1/S checkpoint (restriction point) is most critical. | p53 = tumor suppressor (checks DNA damage → apoptosis or arrest). Rb = retinoblastoma protein. Know the phases. |
| 10 | **Membrane Transport** | Passive: simple diffusion, facilitated (channels/carriers). Active: primary (ATP), secondary (ion gradient). | Know: Na+/K+ ATPase (3 Na+ out, 2 K+ in = electrogenic). GLUT transporters (facilitated diffusion of glucose). | Osmosis: water moves toward higher solute concentration. Aquaporins facilitate. Tonicity: isotonic, hypotonic, hypertoni |
| 11 | **Signal Transduction** | Extracellular signal → receptor → intracellular cascade → response. | GPCRs (7TM, cAMP, IP3/DAG), RTKs (dimerize, autophosphorylate, Ras/MAPK). | Know the major second messengers: cAMP, IP3, DAG, Ca2+. Signal amplification at each step. Desensitization via receptor  |
| 12 | **Operon (Prokaryotic Gene Regulation)** | Cluster of genes under one promoter. Lac operon: inducible (lactose → ON). Trp operon: repressible (Trp → OFF). | Lac operon: lacZ (β-gal), lacY (permease), lacA. CAP-cAMP enhances (when glucose low). | Know the difference: inducible = default OFF (substrate turns ON). Repressible = default ON (product turns OFF). Glucose |
| 13 | **Eukaryotic Gene Regulation** | Transcription factors, enhancers, silencers, chromatin remodeling, alternative splicing. | More complex than prokaryotes. Epigenetics: DNA methylation (silences), histone acetylation (activates). | Enhancers work at a distance (DNA looping). Different cell types = different transcription factor combinations. |
| 14 | **Viruses** | Obligate intracellular parasites: nucleic acid + protein coat (capsid). Some have envelope. | Lytic cycle: immediate replication → lysis. Lysogenic: integrates into host (prophage/provirus) → later activation. | Retrovirus: RNA genome → reverse transcriptase → DNA → integrates. HIV. Prions: infectious proteins (no nucleic acid). |
| 15 | **Bacteria (Prokaryotes)** | No nucleus. Single circular chromosome. 70S ribosomes. Cell wall (peptidoglycan). | Gram+: thick peptidoglycan, purple. Gram-: thin + outer membrane LPS, pink. | Shapes: cocci (round), bacilli (rod), spirilla (spiral). Binary fission (asexual). Transformation, transduction, conjuga |
| 16 | **Immune System (Innate)** | Non-specific: barriers (skin), phagocytes (neutrophils, macrophages), NK cells, complement, inflammation. | First line of defense. No memory. Complement: opsonization, MAC (lysis), chemotaxis. | Inflammation: vasodilation, ↑ permeability, WBC migration. Mast cells release histamine. Interferons: antiviral. |
| 17 | **Immune System (Adaptive)** | Specific, memory. B cells (antibodies/humoral). T cells (cell-mediated). | Helper T (CD4+): activates B and Tc. Cytotoxic T (CD8+): kills infected cells. | B cells: plasma cells make antibodies. Clonal selection. Primary response slow, secondary fast (memory cells). Vaccinati |
| 18 | **Antibody Structure** | Y-shaped: 2 heavy chains, 2 light chains. Fab (antigen-binding, variable), Fc (constant, effector). | 5 classes: IgG (most abundant, crosses placenta), IgM (pentamer, primary response), IgA (dimer, mucosal), IgE (allergy,  | Variable region = antigen specificity. Class switching: same variable, different constant (e.g., IgM→IgG). Somatic hyper |
| 19 | **Neuron & Action Potential** | Resting potential: -70mV (Na+/K+ pump, K+ leak channels). Depolarization (Na+ in), Repolarization (K+ out), Hyperpolariz | All-or-nothing. Threshold ~ -55mV. Propagation: saltatory conduction (myelinated). | Myelin: Schwann cells (PNS), oligodendrocytes (CNS). Nodes of Ranvier = high Na+ channel density. Synapse: Ca2+ triggers |
| 20 | **Endocrine System** | Hormones: peptide (hydrophilic, surface receptors), steroid (hydrophobic, intracellular receptors), tyrosine derivatives | Hypothalamus → Pituitary (anterior: trophic hormones, posterior: ADH/oxytocin). | Know: insulin (β cells), glucagon (α cells), T3/T4 (metabolism), cortisol (stress), aldosterone (Na+ retention), PTH (↑C |
| 21 | **Nephron & Kidney Function** | Filtration (glomerulus) → Reabsorption (PCT, loop) → Secretion (DCT) → Excretion. | PCT: most reabsorption. Loop of Henle: countercurrent multiplier (↓thin = water out, ↑thin = NaCl out, ↑thick = active N | ADH: inserts aquaporins → water reabsorption. Aldosterone: Na+ reabsorption, K+ secretion. ANP: opposes aldosterone. |
| 22 | **Respiratory System** | Ventilation: O2 in, CO2 out. Gas exchange in alveoli. | Tidal volume, vital capacity, residual volume. Surfactant reduces surface tension. | O2 transport: hemoglobin (4 O2 per Hb). CO2 transport: bicarbonate (70%), Hb-bound (23%), dissolved (7%). Bohr and Halda |
| 23 | **Cardiovascular System** | Heart: 4 chambers. Systemic (LV→body→RA) and Pulmonary (RV→lungs→LA) circuits. | SA node (pacemaker) → AV node (delay) → Bundle of His → Purkinje. Systole (contraction), Diastole (relaxation). | Cardiac output = HR × SV. Frank-Starling: ↑venous return → ↑SV. Know the ECG waves: P (atrial depol), QRS (ventricular d |
| 24 | **Digestive System** | Mouth (amylase) → Stomach (pepsin, HCl) → SI (majority of digestion/absorption) → LI (water absorption). | Pancreas: bicarbonate + enzymes (trypsin, chymotrypsin, lipase, amylase). Liver: bile (emulsifies fats). | Absorption: carbs (monosaccharides), proteins (amino acids, di/tripeptides), fats (chylomicrons → lacteals → lymph). Ent |
| 25 | **Muscle Contraction** | Sliding filament model: actin (thin) + myosin (thick). Ca2+ binds troponin → tropomyosin moves → myosin binds actin. | Power stroke: myosin head pivots (ADP + Pi released). ATP detaches myosin. | Skeletal: troponin-Ca2+. Smooth: Ca2+-calmodulin → MLCK. Cardiac: similar to skeletal with longer AP. Rigor mortis: no A |
| 26 | **Embryonic Development** | Fertilization → Cleavage → Blastula → Gastrulation (3 germ layers) → Neurulation → Organogenesis. | Ectoderm: skin, nervous system. Mesoderm: muscle, bone, blood, kidney. Endoderm: gut lining, lungs, liver. | Induction: one tissue influences development of another. Apoptosis: programmed cell death (e.g., webbing between fingers |
| 27 | **PCR & Gel Electrophoresis** | PCR: amplify DNA (denature → anneal → extend). Gel: separate DNA by size (smaller = faster). | PCR requires: template, primers, dNTPs, Taq polymerase. Exponential amplification (2^n). | Gel: DNA is negatively charged → migrates to anode (+). Use ladder for size reference. Southern blot: DNA detection. Nor |
| 28 | **CRISPR/Cas9** | Gene editing tool: guide RNA directs Cas9 to target DNA sequence → double-strand break → repair by NHEJ or HDR. | NHEJ: error-prone, creates indels (gene knockout). HDR: uses template for precise editing. | Revolutionary tool. Ethical considerations. Applications: disease models, gene therapy, agriculture. |

### ✏️ Exercise A: Fill in the Blank
1. **Central Dogma**: DNA → RNA → Protein. __________ (DNA→DNA), Transcription (DNA→RNA), Translation (RNA→Protein).
2. **Transcription**: RNA Polymerase synthesizes mRNA from DNA __________ (5'→3'). Promoter (TATA box) signals start.
3. **Translation**: Ribosome reads mRNA codons → tRNA brings __________ acids → protein chain synthesized N→C
4. **Mitosis**: Somatic cell division: 1 diploid → 2 __________ diploid cells. PMAT: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase.
5. **Meiosis**: Germ cell division: 1 diploid → 4 haploid gametes. Two __________ (Meiosis I: homologous separate, Meiosis II: sister chromatids separate).
6. **Mendelian Genetics**: Law of Segregation (alleles separate in meiosis). __________ of Independent Assortment (different genes sort independently).
7. **Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium**: p² + 2pq + q² = 1, p __________ q = 1. Allele/genotype frequencies in non-evolving population.
8. **Natural Selection**: Differential survival/reproduction of __________ with advantageous traits.
9. **Cell Cycle**: G1 → S (DNA synthesis) → __________ → M (mitosis). G0 = quiescent.
10. **Membrane Transport**: Passive: simple diffusion, facilitated (channels/carriers). __________ primary (ATP), secondary (ion gradient).

### 🔗 Exercise B: Matching
| Term | Letter |
|------|--------|
| **Central Dogma** | ___ |
| **Transcription** | ___ |
| **Translation** | ___ |
| **Mitosis** | ___ |
| **Meiosis** | ___ |
| **Mendelian Genetics** | ___ |
| **Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium** | ___ |
| **Natural Selection** | ___ |
| **Cell Cycle** | ___ |
| **Membrane Transport** | ___ |

| Letter | Definition |
|--------|------------|
| A | Law of Segregation (alleles separate in meiosis). Law of Independent Assortment (different genes sor |
| B | RNA Polymerase synthesizes mRNA from DNA template (5'→3'). Promoter (TATA box) signals start. |
| C | Passive: simple diffusion, facilitated (channels/carriers). Active: primary (ATP), secondary (ion gr |
| D | DNA → RNA → Protein. Replication (DNA→DNA), Transcription (DNA→RNA), Translation (RNA→Protein). |
| E | Ribosome reads mRNA codons → tRNA brings amino acids → protein chain synthesized N→C |
| F | Germ cell division: 1 diploid → 4 haploid gametes. Two divisions (Meiosis I: homologous separate, Me |
| G | Differential survival/reproduction of organisms with advantageous traits. |
| H | Somatic cell division: 1 diploid → 2 identical diploid cells. PMAT: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, T |
| I | p² + 2pq + q² = 1, p + q = 1. Allele/genotype frequencies in non-evolving population. |
| J | G1 → S (DNA synthesis) → G2 → M (mitosis). G0 = quiescent. |

### 📝 Exercise C: MCAT-Style Questions
**1.** Which statement best describes **Central Dogma**?
   A) DNA → RNA → Protein. Replication (DNA→DNA), Transcription (DNA→RNA), Translation (RNA→Protein).
   B) Cluster of genes under one promoter. Lac operon: inducible (lactose → ON). Trp operon: repressible (
   C) Know: Na+/K+ ATPase (3 Na+ out, 2 K+ in = electrogenic). GLUT transporters (facilitated diffusion of
   D) Law of Segregation (alleles separate in meiosis). Law of Independent Assortment (different genes sor

**2.** Which statement best describes **Transcription**?
   A) RNA Polymerase synthesizes mRNA from DNA template (5'→3'). Promoter (TATA box) signals start.
   B) Differential survival/reproduction of organisms with advantageous traits.
   C) Ectoderm: skin, nervous system. Mesoderm: muscle, bone, blood, kidney. Endoderm: gut lining, lungs, 
   D) Cluster of genes under one promoter. Lac operon: inducible (lactose → ON). Trp operon: repressible (

**3.** Which statement best describes **Translation**?
   A) Ribosome reads mRNA codons → tRNA brings amino acids → protein chain synthesized N→C
   B) Germ cell division: 1 diploid → 4 haploid gametes. Two divisions (Meiosis I: homologous separate, Me
   C) Growth, repair, asexual reproduction.
   D) Obligate intracellular parasites: nucleic acid + protein coat (capsid). Some have envelope.

**4.** Which statement best describes **Mitosis**?
   A) Somatic cell division: 1 diploid → 2 identical diploid cells. PMAT: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, T
   B) Germ cell division: 1 diploid → 4 haploid gametes. Two divisions (Meiosis I: homologous separate, Me
   C) More complex than prokaryotes. Epigenetics: DNA methylation (silences), histone acetylation (activat
   D) Transcription factors, enhancers, silencers, chromatin remodeling, alternative splicing.

**5.** Which statement best describes **Meiosis**?
   A) Germ cell division: 1 diploid → 4 haploid gametes. Two divisions (Meiosis I: homologous separate, Me
   B) Filtration (glomerulus) → Reabsorption (PCT, loop) → Secretion (DCT) → Excretion.
   C) Know: Na+/K+ ATPase (3 Na+ out, 2 K+ in = electrogenic). GLUT transporters (facilitated diffusion of
   D) PCR: amplify DNA (denature → anneal → extend). Gel: separate DNA by size (smaller = faster).

---

## 🔬 Section 3: General Chemistry (22 Terms)

| # | Term | Definition | MCAT Significance | Test-Day Tip |
|---|------|------------|-------------------|--------------|
| 1 | **Thermodynamics (Laws)** | 1st: Energy conserved. 2nd: ΔS_universe > 0 for spontaneous. 3rd: S=0 at 0K for perfect crystal. | ΔG = ΔH - TΔS. ΔG<0 = spontaneous. ΔG=0 = equilibrium. ΔG>0 = nonspontaneous. | ΔG°' = standard biochemical conditions (pH 7, 25°C). ΔG = ΔG° + RT ln Q. At equilibrium, ΔG=0 so ΔG° = -RT ln Keq. |
| 2 | **Enthalpy (ΔH)** | Heat of reaction at constant pressure. ΔH<0 = exothermic (heat released). ΔH>0 = endothermic (heat absorbed). | Bond breaking = endothermic. Bond forming = exothermic. | Hess's Law: ΔH of overall = sum of ΔH of steps. Know: combustion (-), formation, bond dissociation (+). |
| 3 | **Entropy (ΔS)** | Measure of disorder/randomness. ΔS>0 = more disorder. ΔS_universe always increases (2nd law). | Gases have highest S, solids lowest. More particles = higher S. | Factors increasing S: more moles of gas, dissolution of solid, phase change (solid→liquid→gas). Temperature increase = S |
| 4 | **Chemical Equilibrium** | Rate_forward = Rate_reverse. Keq = [products]/[reactants]. Le Châtelier: system shifts to relieve stress. | K>1: favors products. K<1: favors reactants. K is temperature-dependent. | Q vs K: Q<K → forward favored. Q>K → reverse favored. Adding inert gas at constant V: no shift. Catalyst: speeds up, doe |
| 5 | **Acids & Bases (Brønsted-Lowry)** | Acid: proton donor. Base: proton acceptor. | Strong acids (HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, H2SO4, HClO4) fully dissociate. Weak acids partially dissociate. | Ka = acid dissociation constant. pKa = -log Ka. Lower pKa = stronger acid. Henderson-Hasselbalch: pH = pKa + log [A-]/[H |
| 6 | **pH & pOH** | pH = -log[H+]. pH + pOH = 14 (at 25°C). pH<7 acidic, pH>7 basic. | Pure water: [H+] = 10^-7, pH = 7. Kw = [H+][OH-] = 10^-14. | Log scale: pH change of 1 = 10x change in [H+]. Know how to estimate pH from [H+] concentration. |
| 7 | **Buffers** | Resist pH change: weak acid + conjugate base (or weak base + conjugate acid). | Maximal buffering at pH = pKa (±1). | Blood buffer: H2CO3/HCO3- (pKa 6.1, but effective at pH 7.4 due to open system/CO2 regulation). Adding strong acid: HA + |
| 8 | **Titration Curves** | Strong acid + strong base: steep at equivalence (pH 7). Weak acid + strong base: buffer region, pH >7 at equivalence. | Equivalence point: moles acid = moles base. Half-equivalence: pH = pKa. | Know the shapes. Polyprotic acids: multiple equivalence points (H3PO4 has 3). Amino acid titration curves: 2-3 inflectio |
| 9 | **Kinetics** | Rate law: rate = k[A]^m[B]^n. Order = m+n. | Zero order: rate independent of [reactant]. 1st: rate ∝ [A] (linear ln[A] vs t). 2nd: rate ∝ [A]^2 (linear 1/[A] vs t). | Arrhenius: k = Ae^(-Ea/RT). Higher T → higher k. Catalyst lowers Ea (does not change ΔG or Keq). Rate-limiting step = sl |
| 10 | **Electrochemistry** | Redox: oxidation (lose e-), reduction (gain e-). ΔG° = -nFE°. | E°_cell = E°_cathode - E°_anode. E°>0 = spontaneous (galvanic). E°<0 = nonspontaneous (electrolytic). | Galvanic: chemical → electrical. Electrolytic: electrical → chemical (drives nonspontaneous). Concentration cell: same h |
| 11 | **Oxidation Numbers** | Rules: element = 0. Monatomic ion = charge. O = -2 (except peroxides -1). H = +1 (except hydrides -1). F = -1. Sum = cha | Use to identify redox reactions. Oxidation = increase in ON. Reduction = decrease in ON. | Reducing agent = oxidized. Oxidizing agent = reduced. Know common OAs (O2, H2O2, MnO4-, Cr2O7^2-) and RAs (metals, H2, C |
| 12 | **Periodic Trends** | L→R: ↑Z_eff, ↓atomic radius, ↑IE, ↑EN, ↓metallic character. Top→Bottom: ↑n, ↑atomic radius, ↓IE, ↓EN. | IE: energy to remove e-. EN: tendency to attract e- (F highest). Electron affinity: energy change adding e- (Cl highest) | Know the exceptions: N has higher IE than O (half-filled p stability). Noble gases have low EA. Isoelectronic series: mo |
| 13 | **Bonding (VSEPR)** | Electron pairs repel → determine geometry. AXmEn notation: A=central, X=atoms, E=lone pairs. | Linear (AX2, 180°), Trigonal planar (AX3, 120°), Tetrahedral (AX4, 109.5°), Trigonal bipyramidal (AX5), Octahedral (AX6) | Lone pairs compress bond angles (H2O = 104.5° vs tetrahedral 109.5°). Know the angles and shapes for AX2 through AX6 wit |
| 14 | **Hybridization** | sp: linear (BeCl2). sp2: trigonal planar (BF3). sp3: tetrahedral (CH4). sp3d: trig bipyramidal. sp3d2: octahedral. | Count: sigma bonds + lone pairs = number of hybrid orbitals. | Double bond = 1σ + 1π. Triple bond = 1σ + 2π. π bonds from unhybridized p orbitals. Resonance = delocalized π electrons. |
| 15 | **Intermolecular Forces** | London dispersion (all molecules), dipole-dipole (polar), H-bonding (H + N/O/F), ion-dipole (strongest). | Strength: network covalent > ionic > metallic > H-bonding > dipole-dipole > LDF. | Higher IMF = higher BP/MP, higher viscosity, higher surface tension. LDF increases with polarizability (larger atoms, mo |
| 16 | **Solubility** | 'Like dissolves like.' Polar solvents dissolve polar/ionic solutes. | ΔG_solution = ΔH - TΔS. Enthalpy of solution: lattice energy (endothermic) + hydration (exothermic). | Hydration shells around ions. Solubility increases with: ion-dipole interactions, H-bonding capability. Common ion effec |
| 17 | **Colligative Properties** | Depend on number of solute particles, not identity: vapor pressure lowering, BP elevation, FP depression, osmotic pressu | ΔT_b = i·Kb·m. ΔT_f = i·Kf·m. π = iMRT. | i = van't Hoff factor (number of particles per formula unit). NaCl → i=2. CaCl2 → i=3. Osmotic pressure is the most sens |
| 18 | **Ideal Gas Law** | PV = nRT. R = 0.0821 L·atm/mol·K or 8.314 J/mol·K. | Combined: P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2. At STP (0°C, 1 atm): 1 mol = 22.4 L. | Kinetic molecular theory: particles have negligible volume, no IMFs, elastic collisions. Real gases deviate at high P/lo |
| 19 | **Nuclear Chemistry** | α decay (⁴₂He, ↓2 Z, ↓4 mass). β- decay (n→p + e- + ν̄, ↑Z). β+ decay (p→n + e+ + ν, ↓Z). γ emission (energy only). | Half-life: t_½ = ln2/k. Exponential decay. | Mass defect: nucleus mass < sum of nucleons (binding energy via E=mc²). Fusion: light nuclei combine. Fission: heavy nuc |
| 20 | **Stoichiometry** | Quantitative relationships in balanced equations. | Mole ratio from coefficients. Limiting reagent determines yield. | Percent yield = actual/theoretical × 100. Molarity = mol/L. Dilution: M1V1 = M2V2. Empirical formula from % composition. |
| 21 | **Solutions & Concentration** | Molarity (M): mol/L. Molality (m): mol/kg solvent. Mole fraction (χ): mol_i/mol_total. | ppm, ppb for trace concentrations. % w/w, % w/v. | Know how to convert between concentration units. Dilution problems: use M1V1 = M2V2 or C1V1 = C2V2. |
| 22 | **Spectroscopy** | Absorption/emission of electromagnetic radiation. | UV-Vis: electronic transitions. IR: vibrational (functional groups). NMR: nuclear spin in magnetic field (chemical envir | Beer-Lambert: A = εbc. A = absorbance, ε = molar absorptivity. IR: C=O ~1700, O-H ~3300 (broad). NMR: TMS reference, che |

### ✏️ Exercise A: Fill in the Blank
1. **Thermodynamics (Laws)**: 1st: Energy conserved. 2nd: ΔS_universe > 0 for __________ 3rd: S=0 at 0K for perfect crystal.
2. **Enthalpy (ΔH)**: Heat of reaction at constant pressure. ΔH<0 = __________ (heat released). ΔH>0 = endothermic (heat absorbed).
3. **Entropy (ΔS)**: Measure of disorder/randomness. ΔS>0 = more __________ ΔS_universe always increases (2nd law).
4. **Chemical Equilibrium**: Rate_forward = Rate_reverse. Keq = [products]/[reactants]. __________ Châtelier: system shifts to relieve stress.
5. **Acids & Bases (Brønsted-Lowry)**: Acid: proton donor. __________ proton acceptor.
6. **pH & pOH**: pH = -log[H+]. pH + pOH = __________ (at 25°C). pH<7 acidic, pH>7 basic.
7. **Buffers**: Resist pH change: weak acid + conjugate __________ (or weak base + conjugate acid).
8. **Titration Curves**: Strong acid + strong base: steep at equivalence (pH 7). __________ acid + strong base: buffer region, pH >7 at equivalence.
9. **Kinetics**: Rate law: rate = __________ Order = m+n.
10. **Electrochemistry**: Redox: oxidation (lose e-), reduction __________ e-). ΔG° = -nFE°.

### 🔗 Exercise B: Matching
| Term | Letter |
|------|--------|
| **Thermodynamics (Laws)** | ___ |
| **Enthalpy (ΔH)** | ___ |
| **Entropy (ΔS)** | ___ |
| **Chemical Equilibrium** | ___ |
| **Acids & Bases (Brønsted-Lowry)** | ___ |
| **pH & pOH** | ___ |
| **Buffers** | ___ |
| **Titration Curves** | ___ |
| **Kinetics** | ___ |
| **Electrochemistry** | ___ |

| Letter | Definition |
|--------|------------|
| A | pH = -log[H+]. pH + pOH = 14 (at 25°C). pH<7 acidic, pH>7 basic. |
| B | Rate law: rate = k[A]^m[B]^n. Order = m+n. |
| C | Resist pH change: weak acid + conjugate base (or weak base + conjugate acid). |
| D | Measure of disorder/randomness. ΔS>0 = more disorder. ΔS_universe always increases (2nd law). |
| E | Acid: proton donor. Base: proton acceptor. |
| F | Redox: oxidation (lose e-), reduction (gain e-). ΔG° = -nFE°. |
| G | Rate_forward = Rate_reverse. Keq = [products]/[reactants]. Le Châtelier: system shifts to relieve st |
| H | Heat of reaction at constant pressure. ΔH<0 = exothermic (heat released). ΔH>0 = endothermic (heat a |
| I | Strong acid + strong base: steep at equivalence (pH 7). Weak acid + strong base: buffer region, pH > |
| J | 1st: Energy conserved. 2nd: ΔS_universe > 0 for spontaneous. 3rd: S=0 at 0K for perfect crystal. |

### 📝 Exercise C: MCAT-Style Questions
**1.** Which statement best describes **Thermodynamics (Laws)**?
   A) 1st: Energy conserved. 2nd: ΔS_universe > 0 for spontaneous. 3rd: S=0 at 0K for perfect crystal.
   B) Quantitative relationships in balanced equations.
   C) Equivalence point: moles acid = moles base. Half-equivalence: pH = pKa.
   D) Rate_forward = Rate_reverse. Keq = [products]/[reactants]. Le Châtelier: system shifts to relieve st

**2.** Which statement best describes **Enthalpy (ΔH)**?
   A) Heat of reaction at constant pressure. ΔH<0 = exothermic (heat released). ΔH>0 = endothermic (heat a
   B) Measure of disorder/randomness. ΔS>0 = more disorder. ΔS_universe always increases (2nd law).
   C) Zero order: rate independent of [reactant]. 1st: rate ∝ [A] (linear ln[A] vs t). 2nd: rate ∝ [A]^2 (
   D) Rules: element = 0. Monatomic ion = charge. O = -2 (except peroxides -1). H = +1 (except hydrides -1

**3.** Which statement best describes **Entropy (ΔS)**?
   A) Measure of disorder/randomness. ΔS>0 = more disorder. ΔS_universe always increases (2nd law).
   B) Rate_forward = Rate_reverse. Keq = [products]/[reactants]. Le Châtelier: system shifts to relieve st
   C) Zero order: rate independent of [reactant]. 1st: rate ∝ [A] (linear ln[A] vs t). 2nd: rate ∝ [A]^2 (
   D) Acid: proton donor. Base: proton acceptor.

**4.** Which statement best describes **Chemical Equilibrium**?
   A) Rate_forward = Rate_reverse. Keq = [products]/[reactants]. Le Châtelier: system shifts to relieve st
   B) sp: linear (BeCl2). sp2: trigonal planar (BF3). sp3: tetrahedral (CH4). sp3d: trig bipyramidal. sp3d
   C) E°_cell = E°_cathode - E°_anode. E°>0 = spontaneous (galvanic). E°<0 = nonspontaneous (electrolytic)
   D) 'Like dissolves like.' Polar solvents dissolve polar/ionic solutes.

**5.** Which statement best describes **Acids & Bases (Brønsted-Lowry)**?
   A) Acid: proton donor. Base: proton acceptor.
   B) Absorption/emission of electromagnetic radiation.
   C) Linear (AX2, 180°), Trigonal planar (AX3, 120°), Tetrahedral (AX4, 109.5°), Trigonal bipyramidal (AX
   D) Resist pH change: weak acid + conjugate base (or weak base + conjugate acid).

---

## 🔬 Section 4: Organic Chemistry (22 Terms)

| # | Term | Definition | MCAT Significance | Test-Day Tip |
|---|------|------------|-------------------|--------------|
| 1 | **Functional Groups** | Key groups: alkane (-C-C-), alkene (C=C), alkyne (C≡C), alcohol (-OH), ether (-O-), aldehyde (-CHO), ketone (C=O), carbo | Must recognize instantly in molecules. Each has characteristic IR and NMR signatures. | Priority for naming: COOH > ester > amide > aldehyde > ketone > alcohol > amine > alkene > alkyne > alkane. |
| 2 | **SN1 Reaction** | Unimolecular nucleophilic substitution. Rate = k[RX]. Two steps: carbocation formation, then nucleophile attack. | 3° > 2° (favored by stable carbocation). Racemization (nucleophile attacks both faces). Protic polar solvent preferred. | SN1: unimolecular rate, racemization, carbocation intermediate, favored by tertiary substrates. Rearrangement possible ( |
| 3 | **SN2 Reaction** | Bimolecular nucleophilic substitution. Rate = k[RX][Nu]. One concerted step — backside attack. | 1° > 2° (steric hindrance). Inversion of configuration (Walden inversion). Aprotic polar solvent preferred. | SN2: bimolecular rate, inversion, concerted mechanism, strong nucleophile needed. Methyl and primary substrates ideal. |
| 4 | **E1 Reaction** | Unimolecular elimination. Two steps: carbocation formation, then base removes β-H. | 3° favored (stable carbocation). Zaitsev product (more substituted alkene) preferred. Competes with SN1 (same intermedia | Heat favors elimination over substitution. E1: unimolecular, carbocation intermediate, no stereospecificity. |
| 5 | **E2 Reaction** | Bimolecular elimination. Concerted: base removes β-H while leaving group departs. | Anti-periplanar H and LG required. Strong base. Rate = k[RX][Base]. | Zaitsev rule: more substituted alkene is major (unless bulky base → Hofmann product). E2: bimolecular, concerted, stereo |
| 6 | **Stereochemistry** | 3D arrangement of atoms. Chiral center: C with 4 different groups. Enantiomers: non-superimposable mirror images. | R/S nomenclature (Cahn-Ingold-Prelog). Diastereomers: non-mirror stereoisomers. Meso: chiral centers but internal plane  | Optical activity: enantiomers rotate plane-polarized light equally and oppositely. Racemic mixture: 50:50 (no net rotati |
| 7 | **Stereoisomers** | Same connectivity, different spatial arrangement. Configurational (can't interconvert without breaking bonds) vs Conform | Enantiomers: all chiral centers inverted. Diastereomers: at least one (but not all) chiral centers differ. | Know Newman projections. Staggered = lower energy, eclipsed = higher. Cyclohexane: chair (lowest), boat, twist-boat. |
| 8 | **Nucleophile** | Electron-rich species attracted to positive charge — 'nucleus lover.' Donates electron pair. | Strong nucleophiles: I-, HS-, RS-, HO-, RO-, CN-, N3-, NH3, amines. | Nucleophilicity trends: same group → larger atom = better Nu (I- > Br- > Cl- > F-). Same period: more electronegative =  |
| 9 | **Electrophile** | Electron-poor species — accepts electron pair. Lewis acid. | Carbonyl carbon, carbocations, alkyl halides (δ+ on C), electron-deficient atoms. | Electrophilic aromatic substitution: nitration, sulfonation, halogenation, Friedel-Crafts alkylation/acylation. Know the |
| 10 | **Resonance** | Delocalization of π electrons across multiple atoms — stabilizes molecule. | Resonance structures: same atom positions, different electron distribution (curved arrow notation). | Resonance effects: stabilize carbocations, make carbonyl compounds more electrophilic, explain directing effects in EAS. |
| 11 | **Inductive Effect** | Electron withdrawal/donation through σ bonds — electronegativity-based. | EWG (electron-withdrawing): -NO2, -CN, -CF3, -COOH, halogens. EDG (electron-donating): alkyl groups. | Inductive effects stabilize/destabilize carbocations and affect acidity. Cl is EWG by induction but EDG by resonance — n |
| 12 | **Aromaticity** | Cyclic, planar, fully conjugated, 4n+2 π electrons (Hückel's Rule). | Benzene (n=1). Naphthalene. Heteroaromatic: pyridine (N), pyrrole (N), furan (O). | Antiaromatic: 4n π electrons (unstable). Non-aromatic: not fully conjugated or planar. Aromatic compounds have special s |
| 13 | **Carboxylic Acid Derivatives** | Acid chloride > anhydride > ester > amide (reactivity order). All hydrolyze to carboxylic acid. | Nucleophilic acyl substitution mechanism. Leaving group ability determines reactivity. | Amides are least reactive (resonance with N). Acid chlorides react with water. Esters: Fischer esterification (COOH + RO |
| 14 | **Aldol Condensation** | Enolate (α-C nucleophile) attacks carbonyl of another molecule → β-hydroxy carbonyl→ dehydration → α,β-unsaturated carbo | Aldol addition (OH) vs aldol condensation (double bond formed after dehydration). Base-catalyzed. | Crossed aldol (two different carbonyls) can produce mixtures unless one has no α-H (e.g., formaldehyde, benzaldehyde). R |
| 15 | **Oxidation/Reduction (Organic)** | Oxidation: gain O or lose H. Reduction: lose O or gain H. | Alcohol oxidation: 1°→aldehyde (PCC)→carboxylic acid (Jones/KMnO4). 2°→ketone. 3°→no reaction. | Reducing agents: NaBH4 (aldehydes/ketones), LiAlH4 (also esters/acids). Know the reagents for specific transformations. |
| 16 | **Spectroscopy (IR)** | IR: functional group identification. C=O ~1700 (sharp, strong), O-H ~3300 (broad), N-H ~3300 (sharp), C-O ~1200, C=C ~16 | Fingerprint region (<1500) for molecular identity. | Know key peaks. Conjugation shifts C=O to lower wavenumber. H-bonding broadens O-H peak. CO2 in air ≈ 2350. |
| 17 | **Spectroscopy (NMR)** | 1H NMR: number of signals = unique H environments. Chemical shift (δ): electronegative groups deshield (higher δ). Split | Integration = area under peak (proportional to #H). | Key shifts: TMS (0), alkyl ~1, next to C=O ~2, next to O/N ~3-4, alkene ~5-6, aromatic ~7-8, aldehyde ~10, COOH ~12. Exc |
| 18 | **Protecting Groups** | Temporarily mask a reactive functional group to prevent unwanted reaction. | Alcohols: silyl ethers (TMS, TBDMS), benzyl ether, acetal. Carbonyls: acetal/ketal. Amines: Boc, Fmoc, Cbz. | Must be easily added and removed. Orthogonal: different protecting groups removable under different conditions. |
| 19 | **Diels-Alder Reaction** | [4+2] cycloaddition: conjugated diene + dienophile (alkene with EWG)→ cyclohexene. | Stereospecific: cis dienophile → cis product. Endo rule: substituent on dienophile points toward diene. | HOMO (diene) + LUMO (dienophile). Electron-withdrawing groups on dienophile accelerate reaction. Retro-Diels-Alder is th |
| 20 | **Amino Acid Synthesis (Strecker/Gabriel)** | Strecker: aldehyde + NH3/NH4Cl + KCN → α-aminonitrile → AA. Gabriel: phthalimide + RX + hydrolysis. | Both yield racemic mixtures. Modern asymmetric synthesis uses chiral auxiliaries or enzymes. | Strecker is classic MCAT. Know the mechanistic steps: imine formation, cyanide attack, hydrolysis. |
| 21 | **Acidity Trends** | Resonance stabilization of conjugate base increases acidity. | Carboxylic acid (pKa ~5) > phenol (pKa ~10) > alcohol (pKa ~16) > alkyne (pKa ~25) > alkene (pKa ~44) > alkane (pKa ~50) | EWG increase acidity (inductive effect). More s-character = more acidic (sp > sp2 > sp3). Charge: cationic acid stronger |
| 22 | **Polymer Chemistry** | Addition polymers: alkene monomers, radical/cation/anion initiators (PE, PP, PVC, PS, PTFE). Condensation: loss of small | Know common polymers and their monomers. | Thermoplastic (remoldable) vs thermoset (permanent). Know: amino acids→proteins (nylon analogy), sugars→polysaccharides. |

### ✏️ Exercise A: Fill in the Blank
1. **Functional Groups**: Key groups: alkane (-C-C-), alkene (C=C), alkyne (C≡C), alcohol (-OH), ether (-O-), __________ (-CHO), ketone (C=O), carboxylic acid (-COOH), ester (-COOR), amide (-CONH2), amine (-NH2).
2. **SN1 Reaction**: Unimolecular nucleophilic substitution. Rate = k[RX]. __________ steps: carbocation formation, then nucleophile attack.
3. **SN2 Reaction**: Bimolecular nucleophilic substitution. Rate = k[RX][Nu]. __________ concerted step — backside attack.
4. **E1 Reaction**: Unimolecular elimination. Two steps: carbocation __________ then base removes β-H.
5. **E2 Reaction**: Bimolecular elimination. Concerted: base removes __________ while leaving group departs.
6. **Stereochemistry**: 3D arrangement of atoms. Chiral center: C __________ 4 different groups. Enantiomers: non-superimposable mirror images.
7. **Stereoisomers**: Same connectivity, different spatial arrangement. Configurational (can't interconvert __________ breaking bonds) vs Conformational (rotation about σ bonds).
8. **Nucleophile**: Electron-rich species attracted to positive charge __________ 'nucleus lover.' Donates electron pair.
9. **Electrophile**: Electron-poor species — accepts __________ pair. Lewis acid.
10. **Resonance**: Delocalization of π electrons across __________ atoms — stabilizes molecule.

### 🔗 Exercise B: Matching
| Term | Letter |
|------|--------|
| **Functional Groups** | ___ |
| **SN1 Reaction** | ___ |
| **SN2 Reaction** | ___ |
| **E1 Reaction** | ___ |
| **E2 Reaction** | ___ |
| **Stereochemistry** | ___ |
| **Stereoisomers** | ___ |
| **Nucleophile** | ___ |
| **Electrophile** | ___ |
| **Resonance** | ___ |

| Letter | Definition |
|--------|------------|
| A | Electron-rich species attracted to positive charge — 'nucleus lover.' Donates electron pair. |
| B | Bimolecular elimination. Concerted: base removes β-H while leaving group departs. |
| C | Same connectivity, different spatial arrangement. Configurational (can't interconvert without breaki |
| D | Unimolecular nucleophilic substitution. Rate = k[RX]. Two steps: carbocation formation, then nucleop |
| E | Key groups: alkane (-C-C-), alkene (C=C), alkyne (C≡C), alcohol (-OH), ether (-O-), aldehyde (-CHO), |
| F | Bimolecular nucleophilic substitution. Rate = k[RX][Nu]. One concerted step — backside attack. |
| G | Electron-poor species — accepts electron pair. Lewis acid. |
| H | Unimolecular elimination. Two steps: carbocation formation, then base removes β-H. |
| I | Delocalization of π electrons across multiple atoms — stabilizes molecule. |
| J | 3D arrangement of atoms. Chiral center: C with 4 different groups. Enantiomers: non-superimposable m |

### 📝 Exercise C: MCAT-Style Questions
**1.** Which statement best describes **Functional Groups**?
   A) Key groups: alkane (-C-C-), alkene (C=C), alkyne (C≡C), alcohol (-OH), ether (-O-), aldehyde (-CHO),
   B) Same connectivity, different spatial arrangement. Configurational (can't interconvert without breaki
   C) Fingerprint region (<1500) for molecular identity.
   D) Enolate (α-C nucleophile) attacks carbonyl of another molecule → β-hydroxy carbonyl→ dehydration → α

**2.** Which statement best describes **SN1 Reaction**?
   A) Unimolecular nucleophilic substitution. Rate = k[RX]. Two steps: carbocation formation, then nucleop
   B) Delocalization of π electrons across multiple atoms — stabilizes molecule.
   C) Know common polymers and their monomers.
   D) [4+2] cycloaddition: conjugated diene + dienophile (alkene with EWG)→ cyclohexene.

**3.** Which statement best describes **SN2 Reaction**?
   A) Bimolecular nucleophilic substitution. Rate = k[RX][Nu]. One concerted step — backside attack.
   B) Electron-poor species — accepts electron pair. Lewis acid.
   C) Benzene (n=1). Naphthalene. Heteroaromatic: pyridine (N), pyrrole (N), furan (O).
   D) Unimolecular nucleophilic substitution. Rate = k[RX]. Two steps: carbocation formation, then nucleop

**4.** Which statement best describes **E1 Reaction**?
   A) Unimolecular elimination. Two steps: carbocation formation, then base removes β-H.
   B) Electron-poor species — accepts electron pair. Lewis acid.
   C) 3° > 2° (favored by stable carbocation). Racemization (nucleophile attacks both faces). Protic polar
   D) Cyclic, planar, fully conjugated, 4n+2 π electrons (Hückel's Rule).

**5.** Which statement best describes **E2 Reaction**?
   A) Bimolecular elimination. Concerted: base removes β-H while leaving group departs.
   B) Enolate (α-C nucleophile) attacks carbonyl of another molecule → β-hydroxy carbonyl→ dehydration → α
   C) Resonance structures: same atom positions, different electron distribution (curved arrow notation).
   D) Bimolecular nucleophilic substitution. Rate = k[RX][Nu]. One concerted step — backside attack.

---

## 🔬 Section 5: Physics (22 Terms)

| # | Term | Definition | MCAT Significance | Test-Day Tip |
|---|------|------------|-------------------|--------------|
| 1 | **Kinematics Equations** | v=v0+at, x=v0t+½at², v²=v0²+2ax, x=½(v+v0)t | Constant acceleration ONLY. | Graphical analysis: slope of x-t = v, slope of v-t = a, area under v-t = Δx. Projectile motion: separate x (constant v)  |
| 2 | **Newton's Laws** | 1st: Inertia (object at rest stays at rest). 2nd: F=ma. 3rd: Action-Reaction (equal and opposite). | Free-body diagrams. Net force determines acceleration. Friction: f_s ≤ μ_sN (static), f_k = μ_kN (kinetic). | Weight = mg. Normal force is perpendicular to surface. Tension is same throughout ideal rope. F_net = 0 at equilibrium. |
| 3 | **Work & Energy** | W = F·d·cosθ. Kinetic: K = ½mv². Potential: U_g = mgh, U_s = ½kx². | W = ΔK (Work-Energy Theorem). Conservation: E_initial = E_final (isolated, conservative). | Power: P = W/t = F·v (Watts). Conservative forces: gravity, spring, electrostatic. Non-conservative: friction (W disspat |
| 4 | **Momentum & Impulse** | p = mv. J = F·Δt = Δp. | Conservation: Σp_initial = Σp_final (no external forces). | Elastic: KE conserved. Inelastic: objects stick (KE not conserved, max energy lost). Impulse = area under F-t graph. Col |
| 5 | **Fluids** | Density: ρ = m/V. Pressure: P = F/A. P_at depth = P_0 + ρgh. | Pascal's principle: pressure applied to enclosed fluid transmitted undiminished (hydraulic lift). | Buoyancy: F_B = ρ_fluid·V_sub·g. Archimedes: buoyant force = weight of displaced fluid. Surface tension, capillary actio |
| 6 | **Fluid Dynamics** | Continuity: A1v1 = A2v2. Bernoulli: P + ½ρv² + ρgh = constant. | Flow rate (Q = Av) is constant. As area decreases, velocity increases. | Bernoulli = conservation of energy for fluids. P + dynamic pressure + hydrostatic = constant. Venturi effect. Viscous fl |
| 7 | **Circuits (Ohm's Law)** | V = IR. P = IV = I²R = V²/R. | Series: R_eq = ΣR, same I. Parallel: 1/R_eq = Σ(1/R), same V. | Resistivity: R = ρL/A. Capacitance: C = Q/V = εA/d. RC time constant: τ = RC. Know how to simplify resistor networks. |
| 8 | **Kirchhoff's Rules** | Junction rule: ΣI_in = ΣI_out (charge conservation). Loop rule: ΣV_loop = 0 (energy conservation). | Solve complex circuits. Apply systematically: label currents, apply junction rule, then loop rule. | Voltage drops across resistor in direction of current (-IR). Voltage gains across battery from - to + (+ε). Capacitors i |
| 9 | **Capacitors** | Store charge: C = Q/V. Parallel plate: C = ε0A/d. | Energy stored: U = ½CV² = ½QV. | Dielectric (κ>1): increases C by factor κ (reduces E-field). Series: 1/C_eq = Σ(1/C). Parallel: C_eq = ΣC. RC circuits:  |
| 10 | **Magnetism** | Moving charges create B-field. F = qv×B (Lorentz). Right-hand rule: thumb=v, fingers=B, palm=F (positive charge). | F = qvB sinθ. F is perpendicular to both v and B. | Magnetic force does NO work (perpendicular to motion). Current-carrying wire: F = IL×B. Cyclotron motion: mv²/r = qvB →  |
| 11 | **Optics (Reflection & Refraction)** | Law of reflection: θ_i = θ_r. Snell's Law: n1 sinθ1 = n2 sinθ2. | n = c/v (refractive index). Light bends toward normal in higher n medium. | Total internal reflection: θ > θ_c (when going from higher to lower n). θ_c = arcsin(n2/n1). Dispersion: n varies with λ |
| 12 | **Mirrors** | Concave (converging): f = R/2 (positive). Real image if object > f, virtual if < f. Convex (diverging): f negative, alwa | 1/f = 1/o + 1/i. m = -i/o = h_i/h_o. | Concave = 'caves in' (like a cave entrance). Real images are inverted, virtual are upright. Plane mirror: i = -o, m = +1 |
| 13 | **Lenses** | Converging (convex): f positive, thicker center. Diverging (concave): f negative, thinner center. | Same equation: 1/f = 1/o + 1/i. | Converging: real, inverted image if o > f. Magnifying glass if o < f (virtual, upright). Diverging: always virtual, upri |
| 14 | **Wave Properties** | v = fλ. Speed depends on medium (not f or λ). Period T = 1/f. | Transverse (vibration ⟂ propagation: light, string). Longitudinal (vibration ∥ propagation: sound). | Standing waves: nodes (zero amplitude) and antinodes (max). Harmonics: string fixed both ends → λ_n = 2L/n, f_n = n f_1. |
| 15 | **Sound** | Longitudinal pressure wave. v_sound ≈ 340 m/s (air, 20°C). | Intensity: I = P/A. Decibels: β = 10 log(I/I0), I0 = 10^-12 W/m². | Doppler effect: f' = f(v±vo)/(v∓vs). Source moving toward = higher f. Beat frequency = |f1 - f2|. Know the sign conventi |
| 16 | **Light & EM Spectrum** | c = 3×10^8 m/s = fλ. EM spectrum: radio < microwave < IR < visible < UV < X-ray < gamma. | Energy: E = hf = hc/λ. Photoelectric effect: K_max = hf - φ. | Photon energy ∝ f (∝ 1/λ). Visible: 400nm (violet) to 700nm (red). Wave-particle duality: light behaves as both wave and |
| 17 | **Atomic Physics** | Bohr model: E_n = -13.6 eV/n². Transitions: ΔE = hf. | Lyman (n→1): UV. Balmer (n→2): visible. Paschen (n→3): IR. | Absorption: n_i→n_f (higher). Emission: n_i→n_f (lower). Ionization: n_i→∞. Quantum numbers: n (shell), l (subshell), m_ |
| 18 | **Nuclear Physics** | Radioactive decay: N = N0 e^(-λt). Half-life: t½ = ln2/λ. | Types: α (⁴₂He), β- (n→p+e-+ν̄), β+ (p→n+e+ +ν), γ (EM). Electron capture: p+e- → n+ν. | Mass defect: E = (Δm)c². Strong nuclear force (short-range, binds nucleons). Weak force (mediates β decay). Fission and  |
| 19 | **Force & Motion (Advanced)** | F_net = ma = dp/dt. Torque: τ = rF sinθ = Iα. | Equilibrium: ΣF = 0, Στ = 0. Center of mass: system's average position weighted by mass. | Uniform circular motion: a_c = v²/r = ω²r, F_c = mv²/r (inward). Angular: ω=Δθ/t, α=Δω/t, v=rω, a_t=rα. |
| 20 | **Electrostatics** | Coulomb's Law: F = k q1q2/r². E = F/q = k q/r². | E-field lines: away from +, toward -. V = kq/r (potential). ΔU = qΔV. | Work: W = qΔV. Electron volt: 1 eV = 1.6×10^-19 J. Conductors: E-field inside = 0 at equilibrium. Insulators can hold st |
| 21 | **Thermodynamics (Physics)** | 0th Law: thermal equilibrium. 1st: ΔU = Q - W. 2nd: ΔS ≥ 0. | Isothermal: ΔT=0, ΔU=0, Q=W. Adiabatic: Q=0, ΔU=-W. Isobaric: ΔP=0. Isovolumetric: ΔV=0, W=0. | Heat engines: efficiency = W/Q_h = 1 - T_c/T_h (Carnot ideal). Carnot is the maximum possible efficiency. Refrigerators/ |
| 22 | **Simple Harmonic Motion** | Restoring force F = -kx. x(t) = A cos(ωt + φ). | ω = √(k/m) for spring. ω = √(g/L) for pendulum. T = 2π/ω. | Energy: E_total = ½kA² (constant). U = ½kx², K = ½mv². T independent of amplitude for pendulum (small angles). Resonance |

### ✏️ Exercise A: Fill in the Blank
1. **Kinematics Equations**: v=v0+at, x=v0t+½at², __________ x=½(v+v0)t
2. **Newton's Laws**: 1st: Inertia (object at rest stays at __________ 2nd: F=ma. 3rd: Action-Reaction (equal and opposite).
3. **Work & Energy**: W = F·d·cosθ. Kinetic: K = ½mv². __________ U_g = mgh, U_s = ½kx².
4. **Momentum & Impulse**: p = mv. J __________ F·Δt = Δp.
5. **Fluids**: Density: ρ = m/V. Pressure: P = __________ P_at depth = P_0 + ρgh.
6. **Fluid Dynamics**: Continuity: A1v1 = A2v2. Bernoulli: P __________ ½ρv² + ρgh = constant.
7. **Circuits (Ohm's Law)**: V = IR. P = __________ = I²R = V²/R.
8. **Kirchhoff's Rules**: Junction rule: ΣI_in = ΣI_out (charge conservation). __________ rule: ΣV_loop = 0 (energy conservation).
9. **Capacitors**: Store charge: C = Q/V. __________ plate: C = ε0A/d.
10. **Magnetism**: Moving charges create B-field. F = qv×B __________ Right-hand rule: thumb=v, fingers=B, palm=F (positive charge).

### 🔗 Exercise B: Matching
| Term | Letter |
|------|--------|
| **Kinematics Equations** | ___ |
| **Newton's Laws** | ___ |
| **Work & Energy** | ___ |
| **Momentum & Impulse** | ___ |
| **Fluids** | ___ |
| **Fluid Dynamics** | ___ |
| **Circuits (Ohm's Law)** | ___ |
| **Kirchhoff's Rules** | ___ |
| **Capacitors** | ___ |
| **Magnetism** | ___ |

| Letter | Definition |
|--------|------------|
| A | W = F·d·cosθ. Kinetic: K = ½mv². Potential: U_g = mgh, U_s = ½kx². |
| B | 1st: Inertia (object at rest stays at rest). 2nd: F=ma. 3rd: Action-Reaction (equal and opposite). |
| C | v=v0+at, x=v0t+½at², v²=v0²+2ax, x=½(v+v0)t |
| D | Density: ρ = m/V. Pressure: P = F/A. P_at depth = P_0 + ρgh. |
| E | V = IR. P = IV = I²R = V²/R. |
| F | Junction rule: ΣI_in = ΣI_out (charge conservation). Loop rule: ΣV_loop = 0 (energy conservation). |
| G | Store charge: C = Q/V. Parallel plate: C = ε0A/d. |
| H | Moving charges create B-field. F = qv×B (Lorentz). Right-hand rule: thumb=v, fingers=B, palm=F (posi |
| I | Continuity: A1v1 = A2v2. Bernoulli: P + ½ρv² + ρgh = constant. |
| J | p = mv. J = F·Δt = Δp. |

### 📝 Exercise C: MCAT-Style Questions
**1.** Which statement best describes **Kinematics Equations**?
   A) v=v0+at, x=v0t+½at², v²=v0²+2ax, x=½(v+v0)t
   B) Continuity: A1v1 = A2v2. Bernoulli: P + ½ρv² + ρgh = constant.
   C) Energy stored: U = ½CV² = ½QV.
   D) F_net = ma = dp/dt. Torque: τ = rF sinθ = Iα.

**2.** Which statement best describes **Newton's Laws**?
   A) 1st: Inertia (object at rest stays at rest). 2nd: F=ma. 3rd: Action-Reaction (equal and opposite).
   B) F_net = ma = dp/dt. Torque: τ = rF sinθ = Iα.
   C) F = qvB sinθ. F is perpendicular to both v and B.
   D) Coulomb's Law: F = k q1q2/r². E = F/q = k q/r².

**3.** Which statement best describes **Work & Energy**?
   A) W = F·d·cosθ. Kinetic: K = ½mv². Potential: U_g = mgh, U_s = ½kx².
   B) Longitudinal pressure wave. v_sound ≈ 340 m/s (air, 20°C).
   C) E-field lines: away from +, toward -. V = kq/r (potential). ΔU = qΔV.
   D) v = fλ. Speed depends on medium (not f or λ). Period T = 1/f.

**4.** Which statement best describes **Momentum & Impulse**?
   A) p = mv. J = F·Δt = Δp.
   B) Converging (convex): f positive, thicker center. Diverging (concave): f negative, thinner center.
   C) Energy stored: U = ½CV² = ½QV.
   D) Continuity: A1v1 = A2v2. Bernoulli: P + ½ρv² + ρgh = constant.

**5.** Which statement best describes **Fluids**?
   A) Density: ρ = m/V. Pressure: P = F/A. P_at depth = P_0 + ρgh.
   B) Radioactive decay: N = N0 e^(-λt). Half-life: t½ = ln2/λ.
   C) Lyman (n→1): UV. Balmer (n→2): visible. Paschen (n→3): IR.
   D) W = F·d·cosθ. Kinetic: K = ½mv². Potential: U_g = mgh, U_s = ½kx².

---

## 🔬 Section 6: Psychology & Sociology (22 Terms)

| # | Term | Definition | MCAT Significance | Test-Day Tip |
|---|------|------------|-------------------|--------------|
| 1 | **Classical Conditioning** | Learning by association: UCS (food) → UCR (salivation). CS (bell) + UCS → CR (salivation to bell). | Pavlov. Key: acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination. | Know the difference: classical = involuntary responses (reflexes). Operant = voluntary behaviors. Little Albert experime |
| 2 | **Operant Conditioning** | Learning by consequences. Reinforcement (↑ behavior), Punishment (↓ behavior). | Positive = add. Negative = remove. Positive reinforcement (add reward), Negative reinforcement (remove aversive), Positi | Skinner. Shaping: reinforcing successive approximations. Schedules: fixed/variable ratio/interval. Variable ratio = most |
| 3 | **Piaget's Cognitive Development** | Sensorimotor (0-2): object permanence. Preoperational (2-7): egocentrism, symbolic play. Concrete Operational (7-11): co | Discrete stages. Schema → Assimilation (fit new into existing) vs Accommodation (modify schema). | Conservation tasks: children in preoperational stage fail. Object permanence develops ~8 months. Vygotsky: social learni |
| 4 | **Freud's Psychosexual Stages** | Oral (0-1), Anal (1-3), Phallic (3-6, Oedipus/Electra), Latency (6-12), Genital (12+). | Fixation at a stage = adult personality traits. Oral fixation = smoking, overeating. Anal-retentive = orderly, stubborn. | Id (pleasure), Ego (reality, mediator), Superego (morality). Defense mechanisms: repression, denial, projection, displac |
| 5 | **Erikson's Psychosocial Stages** | Trust vs Mistrust (0-1), Autonomy vs Shame (1-3), Initiative vs Guilt (3-6), Industry vs Inferiority (6-12), Identity vs | Lifespan development. Each stage has a crisis to resolve. | Key: identity formation (adolescence = identity crisis). Know all 8 stages and approximate ages. |
| 6 | **Kohlberg's Moral Development** | Preconventional (punishment/obedience, instrumental relativism), Conventional (good boy/girl, law and order), Postconven | Heinz dilemma. Most adults stay at conventional level. | Pre = external consequences. Conventional = social norms. Post = abstract principles. Know the 6 stages within the 3 lev |
| 7 | **Maslow's Hierarchy** | Physiological → Safety → Love/Belonging → Esteem → Self-Actualization. | Basic needs must be met before higher needs become motivating. Self-actualization = reaching full potential. | Self-transcendence (beyond self) sometimes added at top. Critiques: not all cultures rank needs identically. |
| 8 | **Social Cognitive Theory** | Bandura: learning through observation (modeling). Attention → Retention → Reproduction → Motivation. | Bobo doll experiment: children imitated aggressive behavior. | Reciprocal determinism: behavior, personal factors, and environment all influence each other. Self-efficacy: belief in o |
| 9 | **Fundamental Attribution Error** | Tendency to attribute others' behaviors to disposition (personality) and our own to situation. | Actor-observer bias: we see our own actions as situational, others' as dispositional. | Self-serving bias: attribute successes to self (dispositional), failures to situation. Just-world hypothesis: belief tha |
| 10 | **Conformity & Obedience** | Asch: conformity to group (line length experiment — 75% conformed at least once). Milgram: obedience to authority (shock | Normative influence: want to be liked. Informational influence: believe group knows better. | Factors: group size (3-5 strongest), unanimity (one dissenter dramatically reduces conformity), proximity of authority,  |
| 11 | **Groupthink** | Group decision-making where desire for harmony overrides realistic appraisal — leads to poor decisions. | Symptoms: illusion of invulnerability, self-censorship, pressure on dissenters, illusion of unanimity. | Prevention: assign devil's advocate, leader withholds opinion initially, anonymous input, outside expert review. Bay of  |
| 12 | **Prejudice & Discrimination** | Prejudice: attitude (cognitive, affective). Discrimination: behavior (unequal treatment). | Stereotype: belief about a group. Stereotype threat: anxiety about confirming negative stereotype → impaired performance | Contact hypothesis: intergroup contact reduces prejudice (under equal status, common goals, cooperation, institutional s |
| 13 | **Social Stratification** | Hierarchical arrangement of individuals into social classes based on wealth, power, prestige. | Class systems: open (mobility possible) vs closed (caste). Socioeconomic status (SES): income + education + occupation. | Social mobility: intergenerational (between generations), intragenerational (within lifetime). Meritocracy: advancement  |
| 14 | **Functionalism (Sociology)** | Society as a system of interconnected parts working together to maintain stability. | Each institution (family, education, religion, government) serves a function. | Manifest functions (intended) vs latent functions (unintended). Dysfunction: element that disrupts stability. Key theori |
| 15 | **Conflict Theory** | Society as competition for limited resources. Power and inequality are central. | Focuses on class conflict (Marx), gender, race inequalities. | Key: bourgeoisie (own means of production) vs proletariat (workers). False consciousness: workers don't recognize their  |
| 16 | **Symbolic Interactionism** | Micro-level: society is built through everyday interactions and shared meanings. | Key: symbols (language, gestures) create shared reality. The 'looking-glass self' (Cooley): we see ourselves as others s | Mead: 'I' (spontaneous self) vs 'Me' (socialized self). Role-taking: anticipating others' responses. Dramaturgy (Goffman |
| 17 | **Research Methods** | Experiments (manipulate IV, measure DV), Correlational (relationship, NO causation), Surveys, Case studies, Naturalistic | Independent Variable (manipulated), Dependent Variable (measured), Confounding Variable (uncontrolled). | Internal validity: did IV cause DV? External validity: generalizability. Random assignment ≠ random sampling. Double-bli |
| 18 | **Sensation & Perception** | Sensation: detection of stimuli (bottom-up). Perception: interpretation (top-down). | Absolute threshold: minimum stimulus detected 50% of time. Difference threshold (JND): minimum detectable difference. | Weber's Law: ΔI/I = k (constant). Signal Detection Theory: sensitivity + response bias. Gestalt principles: proximity, s |
| 19 | **Memory** | Sensory (iconic/echoic) → Short-term/Working (7±2 chunks, ~30 sec) → Long-term (unlimited). | Working memory: central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad. | Encoding: automatic vs effortful. Retrieval: recall vs recognition. Forgetting: encoding failure, decay, interference (p |
| 20 | **Sleep & Consciousness** | NREM 1-3 (deepening) → REM (rapid eye movement, dreaming). Cycles ~90 min, 4-5 per night. | REM: paradoxical sleep (brain active, body paralyzed). NREM 3: slow-wave sleep (restorative, growth hormone). | Sleep disorders: insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea, night terrors (NREM), sleepwalking (NREM). Circadian rhythm: suprach |
| 21 | **Stress & Coping** | Primary appraisal (threat?) → Secondary appraisal (can I cope?). | General Adaptation Syndrome: Alarm → Resistance → Exhaustion. | Problem-focused coping (address stressor) vs Emotion-focused coping (manage feelings). Social support buffers stress. Le |
| 22 | **Psychiatric Disorders (DSM-5)** | Schizophrenia: positive (hallucinations, delusions), negative (flat affect, anhedonia), cognitive symptoms. Dopamine hyp | Depression: anhedonia, sleep/appetite changes, low energy, worthlessness. Serotonin/norepinephrine theories. | Anxiety: GAD, panic, phobias, social anxiety. Bipolar I (mania + depression) vs II (hypomania + depression). OCD: obsess |

### ✏️ Exercise A: Fill in the Blank
1. **Classical Conditioning**: Learning by association: UCS (food) → UCR (salivation). __________ (bell) + UCS → CR (salivation to bell).
2. **Operant Conditioning**: Learning by consequences. Reinforcement __________ behavior), Punishment (↓ behavior).
3. **Piaget's Cognitive Development**: Sensorimotor (0-2): object permanence. Preoperational (2-7): egocentrism, symbolic play. __________ Operational (7-11): conservation, reversibility. Formal Operational (12+): abstract reasoning.
4. **Freud's Psychosexual Stages**: Oral (0-1), Anal (1-3), Phallic __________ Oedipus/Electra), Latency (6-12), Genital (12+).
5. **Erikson's Psychosocial Stages**: Trust vs Mistrust (0-1), Autonomy vs Shame (1-3), Initiative vs Guilt (3-6), Industry vs Inferiority (6-12), __________ vs Role Confusion (12-20), Intimacy vs Isolation (20-40), Generativity vs Stagnation (40-65), Integrity vs Despair (65+).
6. **Kohlberg's Moral Development**: Preconventional (punishment/obedience, instrumental relativism), Conventional (good boy/girl, law __________ order), Postconventional (social contract, universal ethical principle).
7. **Maslow's Hierarchy**: Physiological → Safety → __________ → Esteem → Self-Actualization.
8. **Social Cognitive Theory**: Bandura: learning through observation (modeling). Attention __________ Retention → Reproduction → Motivation.
9. **Fundamental Attribution Error**: Tendency to attribute others' behaviors to __________ (personality) and our own to situation.
10. **Conformity & Obedience**: Asch: conformity to group (line length experiment — 75% conformed at least __________ Milgram: obedience to authority (shock experiment — 65% to max voltage).

### 🔗 Exercise B: Matching
| Term | Letter |
|------|--------|
| **Classical Conditioning** | ___ |
| **Operant Conditioning** | ___ |
| **Piaget's Cognitive Development** | ___ |
| **Freud's Psychosexual Stages** | ___ |
| **Erikson's Psychosocial Stages** | ___ |
| **Kohlberg's Moral Development** | ___ |
| **Maslow's Hierarchy** | ___ |
| **Social Cognitive Theory** | ___ |
| **Fundamental Attribution Error** | ___ |
| **Conformity & Obedience** | ___ |

| Letter | Definition |
|--------|------------|
| A | Trust vs Mistrust (0-1), Autonomy vs Shame (1-3), Initiative vs Guilt (3-6), Industry vs Inferiority |
| B | Bandura: learning through observation (modeling). Attention → Retention → Reproduction → Motivation. |
| C | Physiological → Safety → Love/Belonging → Esteem → Self-Actualization. |
| D | Asch: conformity to group (line length experiment — 75% conformed at least once). Milgram: obedience |
| E | Oral (0-1), Anal (1-3), Phallic (3-6, Oedipus/Electra), Latency (6-12), Genital (12+). |
| F | Tendency to attribute others' behaviors to disposition (personality) and our own to situation. |
| G | Preconventional (punishment/obedience, instrumental relativism), Conventional (good boy/girl, law an |
| H | Sensorimotor (0-2): object permanence. Preoperational (2-7): egocentrism, symbolic play. Concrete Op |
| I | Learning by consequences. Reinforcement (↑ behavior), Punishment (↓ behavior). |
| J | Learning by association: UCS (food) → UCR (salivation). CS (bell) + UCS → CR (salivation to bell). |

### 📝 Exercise C: MCAT-Style Questions
**1.** Which statement best describes **Classical Conditioning**?
   A) Learning by association: UCS (food) → UCR (salivation). CS (bell) + UCS → CR (salivation to bell).
   B) Primary appraisal (threat?) → Secondary appraisal (can I cope?).
   C) Key: symbols (language, gestures) create shared reality. The 'looking-glass self' (Cooley): we see o
   D) Sensation: detection of stimuli (bottom-up). Perception: interpretation (top-down).

**2.** Which statement best describes **Operant Conditioning**?
   A) Learning by consequences. Reinforcement (↑ behavior), Punishment (↓ behavior).
   B) Asch: conformity to group (line length experiment — 75% conformed at least once). Milgram: obedience
   C) Working memory: central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad.
   D) Learning by association: UCS (food) → UCR (salivation). CS (bell) + UCS → CR (salivation to bell).

**3.** Which statement best describes **Piaget's Cognitive Development**?
   A) Sensorimotor (0-2): object permanence. Preoperational (2-7): egocentrism, symbolic play. Concrete Op
   B) Trust vs Mistrust (0-1), Autonomy vs Shame (1-3), Initiative vs Guilt (3-6), Industry vs Inferiority
   C) Working memory: central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad.
   D) Asch: conformity to group (line length experiment — 75% conformed at least once). Milgram: obedience

**4.** Which statement best describes **Freud's Psychosexual Stages**?
   A) Oral (0-1), Anal (1-3), Phallic (3-6, Oedipus/Electra), Latency (6-12), Genital (12+).
   B) Schizophrenia: positive (hallucinations, delusions), negative (flat affect, anhedonia), cognitive sy
   C) Stereotype: belief about a group. Stereotype threat: anxiety about confirming negative stereotype → 
   D) Trust vs Mistrust (0-1), Autonomy vs Shame (1-3), Initiative vs Guilt (3-6), Industry vs Inferiority

**5.** Which statement best describes **Erikson's Psychosocial Stages**?
   A) Trust vs Mistrust (0-1), Autonomy vs Shame (1-3), Initiative vs Guilt (3-6), Industry vs Inferiority
   B) Group decision-making where desire for harmony overrides realistic appraisal — leads to poor decisio
   C) Focuses on class conflict (Marx), gender, race inequalities.
   D) Physiological → Safety → Love/Belonging → Esteem → Self-Actualization.

---

## 🔬 Section 7: CARS / Critical Analysis (15 Terms)

| # | Term | Definition | MCAT Significance | Test-Day Tip |
|---|------|------------|-------------------|--------------|
| 1 | **Passage Mapping (CARS)** | Identify: main thesis, each paragraph's role, author's tone, argument structure | CARS is the MCAT's reading comprehension section. ~9 passages, 53 questions, 90 minutes. | Read for structure, not details. Map: P1 (background/claim), P2 (evidence), P3 (counterargument), P4 (author's resolutio |
| 2 | **Main Idea / Thesis** | What the author MOST wants you to believe — the central claim | Every CARS passage has one. Questions will ask 'primary purpose,' 'central thesis,' 'main point.' | Wrong answers: too narrow (one paragraph), too broad (beyond passage scope), misrepresent author's position, focus on ba |
| 3 | **Inference (CARS)** | A conclusion not explicitly stated but logically supported by passage text | Most CARS questions are inference-based. The answer must be grounded in the passage. | Eliminate: extreme language (always, never), outside knowledge, answers that require additional assumptions beyond passa |
| 4 | **Author's Tone** | The attitude toward the subject — revealed through word choice | Common tones: analytical, skeptical, admiring, critical, neutral, cautious, passionate. | Look for adjectives and adverbs: 'unfortunately' signals criticism. 'Remarkably' signals admiration. Extreme tones ('out |
| 5 | **Strengthen/Weaken (CARS)** | Which new information would support or undermine the author's argument? | Apply the information from the answer choice to the argument in the passage. | Does the new info make the argument more or less likely? The answer must interact with the reasoning, not just the topic |
| 6 | **Application / New Context** | Applying passage ideas to a novel situation not discussed in the passage | Abstract the principle from the passage first. Then match to the new scenario. | Don't get distracted by topic similarity — focus on structural analogy. 'Which example best illustrates the author's arg |
| 7 | **Rhetorical Strategy** | The tools the author uses to persuade: evidence, analogy, counterargument, rhetorical questions, appeals to authority/em | 'Which rhetorical strategy does the author employ in paragraph 3?' | Identify what the author is DOING, not what they're SAYING. Look for transition words that signal strategy shifts. |
| 8 | **Assumption (CARS)** | An unstated premise that must be true for the argument to hold | Similar to LR assumption questions. The argument depends on this unstated belief. | If you negate the assumption and the argument collapses, it's necessary. The passage won't state it — you infer it. |
| 9 | **Counterargument / Concession** | Acknowledging an opposing view, then arguing against it | Strengthens the author's credibility. 'While critics claim X, the evidence suggests Y.' | Identify: which part is the author's view and which is the opposing view? Questions often ask about the relationship bet |
| 10 | **Trap Answers (CARS)** | Half-right/half-wrong: mostly correct but one fatal word. Outside knowledge: brings in facts not in passage. Distortion: | Systematic POE is critical. Even 'feels right' answers can be traps. | Half-right is the most common trap: 'The passage suggests' + accurate paraphrase EXCEPT one word that flips meaning. Rea |
| 11 | **Vocabulary in Context** | Meaning of a word AS USED IN THE PASSAGE (not common definition) | Go back to the specific sentence. Read surrounding context. | The correct meaning is determined by passage context, not dictionary. Test by substituting each answer into the sentence |
| 12 | **Comparative Passages** | Two passages on related topics — compare arguments, agreement, and disagreement | Identify each passage's thesis independently, then compare. | Ask: what do they agree on? Disagree? Is one responding to the other? Does one provide evidence the other lacks? |
| 13 | **Time Management (CARS)** | ~10 minutes per passage. Read in 3-4 min, answer questions in 6-7 min. | Don't get stuck on one passage. Mark difficult questions and return if time permits. | Practice with timed passages. The first and last passage questions tend to be easier (main idea). Middle questions may b |
| 14 | **Active Reading** | Engaging with the text: highlighting key transitions, mentally summarizing each paragraph, predicting the author's direc | Passive reading = re-reading the same sentence 3 times. Active reading = one pass with comprehension. | After each paragraph, mentally note: 'This paragraph is about X and serves to Y.' This takes 2 seconds, saves minutes on |
| 15 | **Evidence-Based Reasoning** | Every CARS answer must be supportable by passage text — not your opinion, not outside knowledge | 'What does the passage say?' is the only question that matters. | If you catch yourself thinking 'I know this is true because...' — stop. Your prior knowledge is irrelevant. The passage  |

### ✏️ Exercise A: Fill in the Blank
1. **Passage Mapping (CARS)**: Identify: main thesis, each paragraph's __________ author's tone, argument structure
2. **Main Idea / Thesis**: What the author MOST wants you __________ believe — the central claim
3. **Inference (CARS)**: A conclusion not explicitly stated __________ logically supported by passage text
4. **Author's Tone**: The attitude toward the subject __________ revealed through word choice
5. **Strengthen/Weaken (CARS)**: Which new information would support __________ undermine the author's argument?
6. **Application / New Context**: Applying passage ideas to a novel __________ not discussed in the passage
7. **Rhetorical Strategy**: The tools the author uses to persuade: __________ analogy, counterargument, rhetorical questions, appeals to authority/emotion
8. **Assumption (CARS)**: An unstated premise that must be __________ for the argument to hold
9. **Counterargument / Concession**: Acknowledging an opposing view, __________ arguing against it
10. **Trap Answers (CARS)**: Half-right/half-wrong: mostly correct but one fatal word. Outside knowledge: __________ in facts not in passage. Distortion: reverses relationship.

### 🔗 Exercise B: Matching
| Term | Letter |
|------|--------|
| **Passage Mapping (CARS)** | ___ |
| **Main Idea / Thesis** | ___ |
| **Inference (CARS)** | ___ |
| **Author's Tone** | ___ |
| **Strengthen/Weaken (CARS)** | ___ |
| **Application / New Context** | ___ |
| **Rhetorical Strategy** | ___ |
| **Assumption (CARS)** | ___ |
| **Counterargument / Concession** | ___ |
| **Trap Answers (CARS)** | ___ |

| Letter | Definition |
|--------|------------|
| A | The attitude toward the subject — revealed through word choice |
| B | Applying passage ideas to a novel situation not discussed in the passage |
| C | A conclusion not explicitly stated but logically supported by passage text |
| D | Acknowledging an opposing view, then arguing against it |
| E | The tools the author uses to persuade: evidence, analogy, counterargument, rhetorical questions, app |
| F | What the author MOST wants you to believe — the central claim |
| G | Half-right/half-wrong: mostly correct but one fatal word. Outside knowledge: brings in facts not in  |
| H | Which new information would support or undermine the author's argument? |
| I | Identify: main thesis, each paragraph's role, author's tone, argument structure |
| J | An unstated premise that must be true for the argument to hold |

### 📝 Exercise C: MCAT-Style Questions
**1.** Which statement best describes **Passage Mapping (CARS)**?
   A) Identify: main thesis, each paragraph's role, author's tone, argument structure
   B) Every CARS answer must be supportable by passage text — not your opinion, not outside knowledge
   C) Identify each passage's thesis independently, then compare.
   D) Half-right/half-wrong: mostly correct but one fatal word. Outside knowledge: brings in facts not in 

**2.** Which statement best describes **Main Idea / Thesis**?
   A) What the author MOST wants you to believe — the central claim
   B) Meaning of a word AS USED IN THE PASSAGE (not common definition)
   C) Apply the information from the answer choice to the argument in the passage.
   D) The attitude toward the subject — revealed through word choice

**3.** Which statement best describes **Inference (CARS)**?
   A) A conclusion not explicitly stated but logically supported by passage text
   B) The tools the author uses to persuade: evidence, analogy, counterargument, rhetorical questions, app
   C) Passive reading = re-reading the same sentence 3 times. Active reading = one pass with comprehension
   D) The attitude toward the subject — revealed through word choice

**4.** Which statement best describes **Author's Tone**?
   A) The attitude toward the subject — revealed through word choice
   B) Half-right/half-wrong: mostly correct but one fatal word. Outside knowledge: brings in facts not in 
   C) Passive reading = re-reading the same sentence 3 times. Active reading = one pass with comprehension
   D) Half-right/half-wrong: mostly correct but one fatal word. Outside knowledge: brings in facts not in 

**5.** Which statement best describes **Strengthen/Weaken (CARS)**?
   A) Which new information would support or undermine the author's argument?
   B) Identify: main thesis, each paragraph's role, author's tone, argument structure
   C) Go back to the specific sentence. Read surrounding context.
   D) The tools the author uses to persuade: evidence, analogy, counterargument, rhetorical questions, app

---

## 🔬 Section 8: MCAT Test Strategy & High-Yield Facts (15 Terms)

| # | Term | Definition | MCAT Significance | Test-Day Tip |
|---|------|------------|-------------------|--------------|
| 1 | **MCAT Section Breakdown** | Chem/Phys (59 Q, 95 min), CARS (53 Q, 90 min), Bio/Biochem (59 Q, 95 min), Psych/Soc (59 Q, 95 min). | 7.5 hours total including breaks. Know the order and timing cold. | Each section: ~10 passage-based sets + 15 discrete questions. Passages first (most points), discretes as time permits. |
| 2 | **Scoring** | Each section: 118-132. Total: 472-528. Median ~500 (125/section). | Percentile matters more than raw score. 510 = ~80th percentile. 518+ = competitive for top schools. | There's no penalty for wrong answers. GUESS on everything you can't solve. Fill in every bubble. |
| 3 | **Amino Acids — Must Know** | Gly, Ala, Val, Leu, Ile, Pro, Met, Phe, Trp (hydrophobic). Ser, Thr, Cys, Tyr, Asn, Gln (polar). Lys, Arg, His (positive | This is non-negotiable. Know every AA: 3-letter, 1-letter, structure, pKa of side chains, category. | 'PVT TIM HALL' for essential. Cysteine = SH (disulfide). Proline = kink. Gly = smallest (flexible). His = pKa ~6 (physio |
| 4 | **Metabolic Pathway Summary** | Fed: ↑insulin → glycolysis, glycogenesis, FA synthesis, protein synthesis. Fasted: ↑glucagon → glycogenolysis, gluconeog | Tissue specificity: liver does gluconeogenesis (G6Pase). Muscle does glycolysis. RBCs: ONLY glycolysis (no mito). Brain: | Key regulated enzymes: PFK-1 (glycolysis), F-1,6-BPase (gluconeogenesis), glycogen phosphorylase (glycogenolysis), glyco |
| 5 | **Hormone Cascade** | Hypothalamus (CRH→TRH→GnRH→GHRH) → Anterior Pituitary (ACTH, TSH, FSH/LH, GH) → Target glands (adrenal cortisol, thyroid | Negative feedback is the rule. Cortisol inhibits CRH/ACTH. T3/T4 inhibit TRH/TSH. | Exceptions: positive feedback = oxytocin during childbirth, LH surge during ovulation. Know the axes: HPA, HPT, HPG. |
| 6 | **Electrophysiology** | Resting: -70mV (Na+/K+ ATPase, K+ leak). AP: threshold (-55mV) → NaV open (depol) → NaV inactivate, KV open (repol) → hy | Absolute refractory: no new AP possible (NaV inactivated). Relative refractory: harder but possible (KV still open, hype | Myelination: saltatory conduction (nodes of Ranvier). Speed: larger diameter, myelination. Synapse: Ca2+ → vesicle fusio |
| 7 | **Acid-Base Disorders** | Respiratory acidosis: ↑CO2 (hypoventilation). Resp alkalosis: ↓CO2 (hyperventilation). Metabolic acidosis: ↓HCO3-. Metab | Compensation: respiratory = renal (slow, days). Metabolic = respiratory (fast, minutes). | Anion gap: Na - (Cl + HCO3). Normal ~8-12. High AG = MUDPILES (methanol, uremia, DKA, etc.). Non-AG = HARDUP (hyperalime |
| 8 | **Genetics Problem Types** | Autosomal dominant: every generation, M=F. Autosomal recessive: skips generations, M=F. X-linked recessive: more males,  | Punnett squares. Calculate: risk to offspring, carrier probability. | Hardy-Weinberg: p²+2pq+q²=1. For X-linked, male frequency = q. Know the logic, not just the formula. |
| 9 | **Thermodynamics Summary** | ΔG = ΔH - TΔS. ΔG<0 = spontaneous. ΔG=0 = equilibrium. ΔG° = -RT ln Keq. | Coupled reactions: overall ΔG = sum. ATP hydrolysis drives endergonic reactions. | Enzyme catalysis does NOT change ΔG° or Keq. It only lowers Ea (activation energy). Know the difference between ΔG and Δ |
| 10 | **Spectroscopy Summary** | NMR: number of signals = unique H. IR: functional groups (C=O~1700, OH~3300). UV-Vis: conjugated systems (λmax shifts wi | Mass spec: M+ peak = molecular weight. Fragmentation patterns. | IR: sharper peak = stronger dipole. Conjugation shifts C=O lower. NMR: integration = #H, TMS = 0 ppm reference. |
| 11 | **Equation Memorization** | Must be memorized: kinematics, F=ma, Ohm's law, power, energy, momentum, fluids, optics, waves, electrostatics, capacito | The MCAT provides NO equation sheet during the exam. You must know them cold. | Focus on relationships, not just formulas. Know: if X doubles, what happens to Y? Proportional reasoning > plug-and-chug |
| 12 | **Lab Techniques** | PCR, gel electrophoresis, SDS-PAGE, Western blot, Southern/Northern blot, ELISA, chromatography, centrifugation, spectro | Know: what each detects (DNA, RNA, protein). How to interpret results. | PCR: amplify DNA. Western: detect protein (antibody). ELISA: quantify antigen/antibody (direct, indirect, sandwich). Chr |
| 13 | **Organ Systems Approach** | Cardiovascular: CO=HR×SV, Frank-Starling. Respiratory: tidal volume, compliance. Renal: countercurrent multiplier, clear | Integration questions are common. Know how systems interact: RAAS, stress response, exercise physiology. | Starling forces: P_cap - P_int vs π_cap - π_int. Net filtration at arteriolar end, absorption at venular (usually). Edem |
| 14 | **Rate-Limiting Steps** | Glycolysis: PFK-1. Gluconeogenesis: F-1,6-BPase. TCA: isocitrate dehydrogenase. ETC: cytochrome oxidase (Complex IV). FA | These are the most regulated steps. Know the activators and inhibitors of each. | PFK-1: activated by AMP, F-2,6-BP, inhibited by ATP, citrate. HMG-CoA reductase: statins inhibit. Acetyl-CoA carboxylase |
| 15 | **Test-Day Checklist** | Day before: light review only, no new material, pack, sleep 8hrs. Day of: protein-rich breakfast, arrive 30 min early, l | Hydration: drink water but not excessively (bathroom breaks eat time). Caffeine: same as practice tests. | During test: use earplugs/noise-cancelling (test center provides). Take breaks (you've earned them). Don't discuss answe |

### ✏️ Exercise A: Fill in the Blank
1. **MCAT Section Breakdown**: Chem/Phys (59 Q, 95 min), CARS (53 Q, 90 min), __________ (59 Q, 95 min), Psych/Soc (59 Q, 95 min).
2. **Scoring**: Each section: 118-132. Total: __________ Median ~500 (125/section).
3. **Amino Acids — Must Know**: Gly, Ala, Val, Leu, Ile, Pro, Met, Phe, Trp (hydrophobic). Ser, Thr, __________ Tyr, Asn, Gln (polar). Lys, Arg, His (positive). Asp, Glu (negative).
4. **Metabolic Pathway Summary**: Fed: ↑insulin → glycolysis, glycogenesis, FA synthesis, protein __________ Fasted: ↑glucagon → glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, β-oxidation, ketogenesis.
5. **Hormone Cascade**: Hypothalamus (CRH→TRH→GnRH→GHRH) → Anterior Pituitary (ACTH, TSH, FSH/LH, GH) __________ Target glands (adrenal cortisol, thyroid T3/T4, gonads, liver IGFs).
6. **Electrophysiology**: Resting: -70mV (Na+/K+ ATPase, K+ leak). AP: threshold (-55mV) → __________ open (depol) → NaV inactivate, KV open (repol) → hyperpol.
7. **Acid-Base Disorders**: Respiratory acidosis: ↑CO2 (hypoventilation). Resp alkalosis: ↓CO2 __________ Metabolic acidosis: ↓HCO3-. Metabolic alkalosis: ↑HCO3-.
8. **Genetics Problem Types**: Autosomal dominant: every generation, M=F. Autosomal recessive: skips generations, M=F. X-linked recessive: __________ males, carrier females. X-linked dominant: more females, affected fathers → all daughters.
9. **Thermodynamics Summary**: ΔG = ΔH - TΔS. ΔG<0 = spontaneous. __________ = equilibrium. ΔG° = -RT ln Keq.
10. **Spectroscopy Summary**: NMR: number of signals = unique H. IR: functional __________ (C=O~1700, OH~3300). UV-Vis: conjugated systems (λmax shifts with conjugation).

### 🔗 Exercise B: Matching
| Term | Letter |
|------|--------|
| **MCAT Section Breakdown** | ___ |
| **Scoring** | ___ |
| **Amino Acids — Must Know** | ___ |
| **Metabolic Pathway Summary** | ___ |
| **Hormone Cascade** | ___ |
| **Electrophysiology** | ___ |
| **Acid-Base Disorders** | ___ |
| **Genetics Problem Types** | ___ |
| **Thermodynamics Summary** | ___ |
| **Spectroscopy Summary** | ___ |

| Letter | Definition |
|--------|------------|
| A | Hypothalamus (CRH→TRH→GnRH→GHRH) → Anterior Pituitary (ACTH, TSH, FSH/LH, GH) → Target glands (adren |
| B | Resting: -70mV (Na+/K+ ATPase, K+ leak). AP: threshold (-55mV) → NaV open (depol) → NaV inactivate,  |
| C | Fed: ↑insulin → glycolysis, glycogenesis, FA synthesis, protein synthesis. Fasted: ↑glucagon → glyco |
| D | ΔG = ΔH - TΔS. ΔG<0 = spontaneous. ΔG=0 = equilibrium. ΔG° = -RT ln Keq. |
| E | NMR: number of signals = unique H. IR: functional groups (C=O~1700, OH~3300). UV-Vis: conjugated sys |
| F | Respiratory acidosis: ↑CO2 (hypoventilation). Resp alkalosis: ↓CO2 (hyperventilation). Metabolic aci |
| G | Gly, Ala, Val, Leu, Ile, Pro, Met, Phe, Trp (hydrophobic). Ser, Thr, Cys, Tyr, Asn, Gln (polar). Lys |
| H | Each section: 118-132. Total: 472-528. Median ~500 (125/section). |
| I | Chem/Phys (59 Q, 95 min), CARS (53 Q, 90 min), Bio/Biochem (59 Q, 95 min), Psych/Soc (59 Q, 95 min). |
| J | Autosomal dominant: every generation, M=F. Autosomal recessive: skips generations, M=F. X-linked rec |

### 📝 Exercise C: MCAT-Style Questions
**1.** Which statement best describes **MCAT Section Breakdown**?
   A) Chem/Phys (59 Q, 95 min), CARS (53 Q, 90 min), Bio/Biochem (59 Q, 95 min), Psych/Soc (59 Q, 95 min).
   B) Gly, Ala, Val, Leu, Ile, Pro, Met, Phe, Trp (hydrophobic). Ser, Thr, Cys, Tyr, Asn, Gln (polar). Lys
   C) Integration questions are common. Know how systems interact: RAAS, stress response, exercise physiol
   D) ΔG = ΔH - TΔS. ΔG<0 = spontaneous. ΔG=0 = equilibrium. ΔG° = -RT ln Keq.

**2.** Which statement best describes **Scoring**?
   A) Each section: 118-132. Total: 472-528. Median ~500 (125/section).
   B) Day before: light review only, no new material, pack, sleep 8hrs. Day of: protein-rich breakfast, ar
   C) This is non-negotiable. Know every AA: 3-letter, 1-letter, structure, pKa of side chains, category.
   D) Glycolysis: PFK-1. Gluconeogenesis: F-1,6-BPase. TCA: isocitrate dehydrogenase. ETC: cytochrome oxid

**3.** Which statement best describes **Amino Acids — Must Know**?
   A) Gly, Ala, Val, Leu, Ile, Pro, Met, Phe, Trp (hydrophobic). Ser, Thr, Cys, Tyr, Asn, Gln (polar). Lys
   B) NMR: number of signals = unique H. IR: functional groups (C=O~1700, OH~3300). UV-Vis: conjugated sys
   C) These are the most regulated steps. Know the activators and inhibitors of each.
   D) Fed: ↑insulin → glycolysis, glycogenesis, FA synthesis, protein synthesis. Fasted: ↑glucagon → glyco

**4.** Which statement best describes **Metabolic Pathway Summary**?
   A) Fed: ↑insulin → glycolysis, glycogenesis, FA synthesis, protein synthesis. Fasted: ↑glucagon → glyco
   B) Gly, Ala, Val, Leu, Ile, Pro, Met, Phe, Trp (hydrophobic). Ser, Thr, Cys, Tyr, Asn, Gln (polar). Lys
   C) Know: what each detects (DNA, RNA, protein). How to interpret results.
   D) ΔG = ΔH - TΔS. ΔG<0 = spontaneous. ΔG=0 = equilibrium. ΔG° = -RT ln Keq.

**5.** Which statement best describes **Hormone Cascade**?
   A) Hypothalamus (CRH→TRH→GnRH→GHRH) → Anterior Pituitary (ACTH, TSH, FSH/LH, GH) → Target glands (adren
   B) NMR: number of signals = unique H. IR: functional groups (C=O~1700, OH~3300). UV-Vis: conjugated sys
   C) This is non-negotiable. Know every AA: 3-letter, 1-letter, structure, pKa of side chains, category.
   D) Resting: -70mV (Na+/K+ ATPase, K+ leak). AP: threshold (-55mV) → NaV open (depol) → NaV inactivate, 

---

## 📋 Answer Keys

### Section 1: Biochemistry
**Exercise A:**
1. **Amino Acid Structure**: Central carbon (Cα) with: amino group (-NH2), carboxyl group (-COOH), hydrogen, and variable R group
2. **Essential Amino Acids**: Cannot be synthesized by the body — must be obtained from diet: PVT TIM HALL
3. **Peptide Bond**: Amide linkage between carboxyl group of one AA and amino group of another — dehydration/condensation reaction
4. **Protein Structure Levels**: Primary (sequence), Secondary (α-helix, β-sheet), Tertiary (3D folding), Quaternary (multi-subunit)
5. **Michaelis-Menten Kinetics**: V = Vmax[S]/(Km + [S]). Describes enzyme kinetics at steady state.
6. **Enzyme Inhibitors**: Competitive: binds active site, ↑Km, Vmax unchanged. Noncompetitive: binds allosteric, Km unchanged, ↓Vmax. Uncompetitive: binds ES complex, ↓Km, ↓Vmax.
7. **Hemoglobin**: Tetrameric O2-carrier: 2 α and 2 β subunits. Cooperative binding (sigmoidal curve).
8. **Myoglobin**: Monomeric O2 storage in muscle. Hyperbolic curve (non-cooperative).
9. **Glycolysis**: Glucose → 2 Pyruvate. Net: 2 ATP, 2 NADH. 10 steps in cytoplasm.
10. **Krebs Cycle (TCA / Citric Acid Cycle)**: Acetyl-CoA → 2 CO2. Net per turn: 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 GTP. Matrix of mitochondria.

**Exercise C:** All correct answers are A.
---

### Section 2: Biology & Genetics
**Exercise A:**
1. **Central Dogma**: DNA → RNA → Protein. Replication (DNA→DNA), Transcription (DNA→RNA), Translation (RNA→Protein).
2. **Transcription**: RNA Polymerase synthesizes mRNA from DNA template (5'→3'). Promoter (TATA box) signals start.
3. **Translation**: Ribosome reads mRNA codons → tRNA brings amino acids → protein chain synthesized N→C
4. **Mitosis**: Somatic cell division: 1 diploid → 2 identical diploid cells. PMAT: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase.
5. **Meiosis**: Germ cell division: 1 diploid → 4 haploid gametes. Two divisions (Meiosis I: homologous separate, Meiosis II: sister chromatids separate).
6. **Mendelian Genetics**: Law of Segregation (alleles separate in meiosis). Law of Independent Assortment (different genes sort independently).
7. **Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium**: p² + 2pq + q² = 1, p + q = 1. Allele/genotype frequencies in non-evolving population.
8. **Natural Selection**: Differential survival/reproduction of organisms with advantageous traits.
9. **Cell Cycle**: G1 → S (DNA synthesis) → G2 → M (mitosis). G0 = quiescent.
10. **Membrane Transport**: Passive: simple diffusion, facilitated (channels/carriers). Active: primary (ATP), secondary (ion gradient).

**Exercise C:** All correct answers are A.
---

### Section 3: General Chemistry
**Exercise A:**
1. **Thermodynamics (Laws)**: 1st: Energy conserved. 2nd: ΔS_universe > 0 for spontaneous. 3rd: S=0 at 0K for perfect crystal.
2. **Enthalpy (ΔH)**: Heat of reaction at constant pressure. ΔH<0 = exothermic (heat released). ΔH>0 = endothermic (heat absorbed).
3. **Entropy (ΔS)**: Measure of disorder/randomness. ΔS>0 = more disorder. ΔS_universe always increases (2nd law).
4. **Chemical Equilibrium**: Rate_forward = Rate_reverse. Keq = [products]/[reactants]. Le Châtelier: system shifts to relieve stress.
5. **Acids & Bases (Brønsted-Lowry)**: Acid: proton donor. Base: proton acceptor.
6. **pH & pOH**: pH = -log[H+]. pH + pOH = 14 (at 25°C). pH<7 acidic, pH>7 basic.
7. **Buffers**: Resist pH change: weak acid + conjugate base (or weak base + conjugate acid).
8. **Titration Curves**: Strong acid + strong base: steep at equivalence (pH 7). Weak acid + strong base: buffer region, pH >7 at equivalence.
9. **Kinetics**: Rate law: rate = k[A]^m[B]^n. Order = m+n.
10. **Electrochemistry**: Redox: oxidation (lose e-), reduction (gain e-). ΔG° = -nFE°.

**Exercise C:** All correct answers are A.
---

### Section 4: Organic Chemistry
**Exercise A:**
1. **Functional Groups**: Key groups: alkane (-C-C-), alkene (C=C), alkyne (C≡C), alcohol (-OH), ether (-O-), aldehyde (-CHO), ketone (C=O), carboxylic acid (-COOH), ester (-COOR), amide (-CONH2), amine (-NH2).
2. **SN1 Reaction**: Unimolecular nucleophilic substitution. Rate = k[RX]. Two steps: carbocation formation, then nucleophile attack.
3. **SN2 Reaction**: Bimolecular nucleophilic substitution. Rate = k[RX][Nu]. One concerted step — backside attack.
4. **E1 Reaction**: Unimolecular elimination. Two steps: carbocation formation, then base removes β-H.
5. **E2 Reaction**: Bimolecular elimination. Concerted: base removes β-H while leaving group departs.
6. **Stereochemistry**: 3D arrangement of atoms. Chiral center: C with 4 different groups. Enantiomers: non-superimposable mirror images.
7. **Stereoisomers**: Same connectivity, different spatial arrangement. Configurational (can't interconvert without breaking bonds) vs Conformational (rotation about σ bonds).
8. **Nucleophile**: Electron-rich species attracted to positive charge — 'nucleus lover.' Donates electron pair.
9. **Electrophile**: Electron-poor species — accepts electron pair. Lewis acid.
10. **Resonance**: Delocalization of π electrons across multiple atoms — stabilizes molecule.

**Exercise C:** All correct answers are A.
---

### Section 5: Physics
**Exercise A:**
1. **Kinematics Equations**: v=v0+at, x=v0t+½at², v²=v0²+2ax, x=½(v+v0)t
2. **Newton's Laws**: 1st: Inertia (object at rest stays at rest). 2nd: F=ma. 3rd: Action-Reaction (equal and opposite).
3. **Work & Energy**: W = F·d·cosθ. Kinetic: K = ½mv². Potential: U_g = mgh, U_s = ½kx².
4. **Momentum & Impulse**: p = mv. J = F·Δt = Δp.
5. **Fluids**: Density: ρ = m/V. Pressure: P = F/A. P_at depth = P_0 + ρgh.
6. **Fluid Dynamics**: Continuity: A1v1 = A2v2. Bernoulli: P + ½ρv² + ρgh = constant.
7. **Circuits (Ohm's Law)**: V = IR. P = IV = I²R = V²/R.
8. **Kirchhoff's Rules**: Junction rule: ΣI_in = ΣI_out (charge conservation). Loop rule: ΣV_loop = 0 (energy conservation).
9. **Capacitors**: Store charge: C = Q/V. Parallel plate: C = ε0A/d.
10. **Magnetism**: Moving charges create B-field. F = qv×B (Lorentz). Right-hand rule: thumb=v, fingers=B, palm=F (positive charge).

**Exercise C:** All correct answers are A.
---

### Section 6: Psychology & Sociology
**Exercise A:**
1. **Classical Conditioning**: Learning by association: UCS (food) → UCR (salivation). CS (bell) + UCS → CR (salivation to bell).
2. **Operant Conditioning**: Learning by consequences. Reinforcement (↑ behavior), Punishment (↓ behavior).
3. **Piaget's Cognitive Development**: Sensorimotor (0-2): object permanence. Preoperational (2-7): egocentrism, symbolic play. Concrete Operational (7-11): conservation, reversibility. Formal Operational (12+): abstract reasoning.
4. **Freud's Psychosexual Stages**: Oral (0-1), Anal (1-3), Phallic (3-6, Oedipus/Electra), Latency (6-12), Genital (12+).
5. **Erikson's Psychosocial Stages**: Trust vs Mistrust (0-1), Autonomy vs Shame (1-3), Initiative vs Guilt (3-6), Industry vs Inferiority (6-12), Identity vs Role Confusion (12-20), Intimacy vs Isolation (20-40), Generativity vs Stagnation (40-65), Integrity vs Despair (65+).
6. **Kohlberg's Moral Development**: Preconventional (punishment/obedience, instrumental relativism), Conventional (good boy/girl, law and order), Postconventional (social contract, universal ethical principle).
7. **Maslow's Hierarchy**: Physiological → Safety → Love/Belonging → Esteem → Self-Actualization.
8. **Social Cognitive Theory**: Bandura: learning through observation (modeling). Attention → Retention → Reproduction → Motivation.
9. **Fundamental Attribution Error**: Tendency to attribute others' behaviors to disposition (personality) and our own to situation.
10. **Conformity & Obedience**: Asch: conformity to group (line length experiment — 75% conformed at least once). Milgram: obedience to authority (shock experiment — 65% to max voltage).

**Exercise C:** All correct answers are A.
---

### Section 7: CARS / Critical Analysis
**Exercise A:**
1. **Passage Mapping (CARS)**: Identify: main thesis, each paragraph's role, author's tone, argument structure
2. **Main Idea / Thesis**: What the author MOST wants you to believe — the central claim
3. **Inference (CARS)**: A conclusion not explicitly stated but logically supported by passage text
4. **Author's Tone**: The attitude toward the subject — revealed through word choice
5. **Strengthen/Weaken (CARS)**: Which new information would support or undermine the author's argument?
6. **Application / New Context**: Applying passage ideas to a novel situation not discussed in the passage
7. **Rhetorical Strategy**: The tools the author uses to persuade: evidence, analogy, counterargument, rhetorical questions, appeals to authority/emotion
8. **Assumption (CARS)**: An unstated premise that must be true for the argument to hold
9. **Counterargument / Concession**: Acknowledging an opposing view, then arguing against it
10. **Trap Answers (CARS)**: Half-right/half-wrong: mostly correct but one fatal word. Outside knowledge: brings in facts not in passage. Distortion: reverses relationship.

**Exercise C:** All correct answers are A.
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### Section 8: MCAT Test Strategy & High-Yield Facts
**Exercise A:**
1. **MCAT Section Breakdown**: Chem/Phys (59 Q, 95 min), CARS (53 Q, 90 min), Bio/Biochem (59 Q, 95 min), Psych/Soc (59 Q, 95 min).
2. **Scoring**: Each section: 118-132. Total: 472-528. Median ~500 (125/section).
3. **Amino Acids — Must Know**: Gly, Ala, Val, Leu, Ile, Pro, Met, Phe, Trp (hydrophobic). Ser, Thr, Cys, Tyr, Asn, Gln (polar). Lys, Arg, His (positive). Asp, Glu (negative).
4. **Metabolic Pathway Summary**: Fed: ↑insulin → glycolysis, glycogenesis, FA synthesis, protein synthesis. Fasted: ↑glucagon → glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, β-oxidation, ketogenesis.
5. **Hormone Cascade**: Hypothalamus (CRH→TRH→GnRH→GHRH) → Anterior Pituitary (ACTH, TSH, FSH/LH, GH) → Target glands (adrenal cortisol, thyroid T3/T4, gonads, liver IGFs).
6. **Electrophysiology**: Resting: -70mV (Na+/K+ ATPase, K+ leak). AP: threshold (-55mV) → NaV open (depol) → NaV inactivate, KV open (repol) → hyperpol.
7. **Acid-Base Disorders**: Respiratory acidosis: ↑CO2 (hypoventilation). Resp alkalosis: ↓CO2 (hyperventilation). Metabolic acidosis: ↓HCO3-. Metabolic alkalosis: ↑HCO3-.
8. **Genetics Problem Types**: Autosomal dominant: every generation, M=F. Autosomal recessive: skips generations, M=F. X-linked recessive: more males, carrier females. X-linked dominant: more females, affected fathers → all daughters.
9. **Thermodynamics Summary**: ΔG = ΔH - TΔS. ΔG<0 = spontaneous. ΔG=0 = equilibrium. ΔG° = -RT ln Keq.
10. **Spectroscopy Summary**: NMR: number of signals = unique H. IR: functional groups (C=O~1700, OH~3300). UV-Vis: conjugated systems (λmax shifts with conjugation).

**Exercise C:** All correct answers are A.
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## 📐 BONUS: MCAT Essential Equation Sheet

| **Kinematics** | v=v0+at, x=v0t+½at², v²=v0²+2ax |
| **Force** | F=ma, f=μN, F_g=GMm/r² |
| **Work/Energy** | W=Fd cosθ, K=½mv², U=mgh, U=½kx², P=W/t |
| **Momentum** | p=mv, J=FΔt=Δp |
| **Circular Motion** | a_c=v²/r, F_c=mv²/r, v=rω |
| **Fluids** | ρ=m/V, P=ρgh, F_B=ρVg, A1v1=A2v2, P+½ρv²+ρgh=const |
| **Electricity** | V=IR, P=IV, R=ρL/A, C=Q/V, τ=RC |
| **Magnetism** | F=qvB sinθ, F=ILB sinθ |
| **Optics** | 1/f=1/o+1/i, n1 sinθ1=n2 sinθ2 |
| **Waves** | v=fλ, f'=f(v±vo)/(v∓vs), β=10log(I/I0) |
| **Thermodynamics** | ΔU=Q-W, ΔG=ΔH-TΔS, ΔG°=-RT ln Keq |
| **Nuclear** | N=N0e^(-λt), t½=ln2/λ, E=Δmc² |
| **SHM** | F=-kx, T=2π√(m/k), ω=√(k/m) |
| **Electrostatics** | F=kq1q2/r², E=F/q, V=kq/r |
| **Acid/Base** | pH=-log[H+], pH+pOH=14, HH: pH=pKa+log[A-]/[HA] |
| **Enzyme Kinetics** | V=Vmax[S]/(Km+[S]) |

## 🧬 BONUS: Amino Acid Quick Reference

| **Gly** | G | Nonpolar | -H (flexible) |
| **Ala** | A | Nonpolar | -CH3 |
| **Val** | V | Nonpolar | -CH(CH3)2, essential |
| **Leu** | L | Nonpolar | -CH2CH(CH3)2, essential |
| **Ile** | I | Nonpolar | -CH(CH3)CH2CH3, essential |
| **Pro** | P | Nonpolar | Ring, kink in helix |
| **Phe** | F | Nonpolar | Benzyl, essential, aromatic |
| **Trp** | W | Nonpolar | Indole, essential, aromatic |
| **Met** | M | Nonpolar | -CH2CH2SCH3, essential, start codon |
| **Ser** | S | Polar | -CH2OH |
| **Thr** | T | Polar | -CH(OH)CH3, essential |
| **Cys** | C | Polar | -CH2SH, disulfide bonds |
| **Tyr** | Y | Polar | -CH2-phenol, aromatic |
| **Asn** | N | Polar | -CH2CONH2 |
| **Gln** | Q | Polar | -CH2CH2CONH2 |
| **Lys** | K | Positive | -CH2CH2CH2CH2NH3+, essential |
| **Arg** | R | Positive | -CH2CH2CH2NH-C(NH2)2+, essential |
| **His** | H | Positive | Imidazole, pKa~6, buffer |
| **Asp** | D | Negative | -CH2COO- |
| **Glu** | E | Negative | -CH2CH2COO- |

## 🗺️ BONUS: High-Yield Metabolic Pathways Map

| **Glycolysis** | Cytoplasm | Glucose→2 Pyruvate | 2 ATP, 2 NADH. PFK-1 is rate-limiting. |
| **Gluconeogenesis** | Mitochondria/Cytoplasm | Pyruvate→Glucose | -6 ATP equivalent. Bypass: pyruvate carboxylase, PEPCK, FBPase, G6Pase. |
| **TCA Cycle** | Mitochondrial Matrix | Acetyl-CoA→2 CO2 | 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 GTP. Rate-limiting: isocitrate dehydrogenase. |
| **ETC/Ox Phos** | Inner Mitochondrial Membrane | NADH/FADH2→ATP | ~2.5 ATP/NADH, ~1.5 ATP/FADH2. O2 final acceptor. |
| **β-Oxidation** | Mitochondrial Matrix | FA→Acetyl-CoA | Each cycle: 1 FADH2, 1 NADH. Carnitine shuttle. |
| **PPP** | Cytoplasm | G6P→Ribose-5-P + NADPH | NADPH for biosynthesis + GSH. G6PD deficiency = hemolytic anemia. |
| **Glycogenesis** | Cytoplasm (liver/muscle) | Glucose→Glycogen | Insulin activates. Glycogen synthase. |
| **Glycogenolysis** | Cytoplasm (liver/muscle) | Glycogen→Glucose | Glucagon/epinephrine activate. Glycogen phosphorylase. |

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